1 K. D. Clouser & B. Gert, "A Critique of Principlism," The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15 (1990) 219. [Back]
2 J. L. T. Almeida & F. R. Schramm, "Paradigm Shift, Metamorphosis of Medical Ethics, and the Rise of Bioethics," Cardernos de Saúde Pública 15 Supplement 1 (1999) 21. [Back]
3 D. Callahan, "Bioethics," in W. T. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics, Vol. I (New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1995) 252. [Back]
4 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979, 52001) 57-58. [Back]
5 A. Vedder, The Values of Freedom (Utrecht: Aurelio Domus Artum, 1995) 23. [Back]
6 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 58. [Back]
7 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 62. [Back]
8 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 63. [Back]
9 T. L. Beauchamp & James F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 57; Tom Meulenbergs & Paul Schotsmans, "The Sanctity of Autonomy? Transcending the Opposition between a Quality of Life and a Sanctity of Life Ethic," Bijdragen 62 (2001) 283-287. [Back]
10 P. A. Schilpp, Kant's Pre-Critical Ethics (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1970) 165; I. Kant, Grounding for Metaphysics of Morals, translated by J. W. Ellington (Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, 1981) 20; T. Auxter, Kant's Moral Teleology (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1982) 110. [Back]
11 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 57. [Back]
12 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 59. [Back]
13 I. Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, trans., J. W. Ellington (Cambridge: Hackett Publisgers, 1987) 38. [Back]
14 T. L. Beauchamp & James F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 57. [Back]
15 S. Holm, "Autonomy," in Chadwick, R. (ed.), Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics 1 (New York: Academic Press, 1998) 267-274, 269. [Back]
16 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 64. [Back]
19 Ibid., 1st edition, 59-60. [Back]
20 K. W. Wildes observes: "For a preference utilitarian, like Beauchamp, 'autonomy' will be understood as the liberty to achieve certain goods. For a deontologist, like Kant, autonomy is concerned not with the pursuit of heteronomous desires but with acting in accord with the demands of reason imposed by the moral law. Childress, even though he does not endorse a Kantian deontology, relies upon right making and wrong making criteria that are independent of consequences. So while both Beauchamp and Childress speak of 'autonomy,' the term is a placeholder for many different meanings in radically different languages." Cf. K. W. Wildes, "Libertarianism and Ownership of the Human Body," in Ten Have, H. A. M. J., Welief, J. V. M. & Spicker, S. F. (eds.), Ownership of the Human Body: Philosophical Considerations on the Use of the Human Body and its Parts in Health Care (Dordrecht/Boston/ London: Kluwer Academic Publications, 1998) 143-157, 146. [Back]
21 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 117. [Back]
22 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 114. The utilitarian concept of non-maleficence can be seen in H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961) 190. For the nonutilitarian concept of non-maleficence see in W. D. Ross, The Right and the Good (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1930) 21-26; J. Rawls, A Theory of Justice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971) 114-117. [Back]
23 L. R. Churchchill, "Beneficence," in W. T. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics, Vol. I (New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1995) 243. [Back]
24 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 135. [Back]
25 L. R. Churchchill, "Beneficence," 243. [Back]
26 Cf. T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 166. [Back]
27 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 136. [Back]
31 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 226. [Back]
32 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 226. [Back]
33 T. M. Garrett, H. W. Baillie & R. M. Garrett (eds.), Health Care Ethics: Principles and Problems (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1989) 76. [Back]
34 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 226. [Back]
37 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 227. [Back]
40 Ibid., 228. N. Rescher gives certain norms for material distributive justice. Cf. N. Rescher, Distributive Justice (Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill, 1966) 73-83. [Back]
41 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 228. [Back]
42 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 230. [Back]
43 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 231. [Back]
45 F. T. Rossell, "The Limits of the Autonomy Principle: Philosophical Considerations," in J. Rendtorff & P. Kemp (eds.), Basic Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw, Vol. II (Copenhagen: Center for Ethics and Law, 2000) 217-236, 235. [Back]
46 J. Rendtorff & P. Kemp, Basic Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw, Vol. 1, 110. [Back]
50 About the concept of organ donation and voluntarism see A. M. Sadler & B. L. Sadler, "Organ Donation: Is Voluntarism Still Valid?" The Hastings Center Report 14/5 (1984) 6-9. [Back]
51 H. L. Schreiber, "Legal Implications of the Principle Primum Nihil Nocere as it Applies to Live Donors," in W. Land & J. B. Dossetor (eds.), Organ Replacement Therapy: Ethics, Justice and Commerce (Berlin Heldelberg: Springer-Verlag, 1991) 15. [Back]
52 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 77-103. [Back]
53 A. Spital & M. Spital, "Kidney Donation: Reflection," American Journal of Nephrology 7 (1987) 49-54, 49; J. P. Merrill, "Statement of the Committee on Morals and Ethics of the Transplantation Society," Annals of Internal Medicine 75 (1971) 631-633. [Back]
54 A. Caplan, "Must I Be My Brother's Keeper? Ethical Issues in the Use of Living Donors as Sources of Liver and Other Solid Organs," Transplantation Proceedings 25/2 (1993) 1998. [Back]
55 W. Land, "The Problem of Living Organ Donation: Facts, Thoughts, and Reflections," Transplant International 2 (1989) 171. [Back]
56 G. R. Dustan, "The Ethics of Organ Donation," British Medical Bulletin 53/4 (1997) 922. Similar ideas also see in J. F. Childress, "The Failure to Give: Reducing Barriers to Organ Donation," Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 11 (2001) 9. [Back]
57 A. S. Daar et al., "Living-Donor Renal Transplantation: Evidence-Based Justification for an Ethical Option," 101. [Back]
58 J. Montgomery, Health Care Law (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997) 424. [Back]
59 C. Byk, "Living Organ Donation: European Perspective," in D. P. T. Price & H. Akveld (eds.), Living Organ Donation in Nineties: European Medico-Legal Perspectives (Leicester: Eurotold Project, 1995) 58. [Back]
60 E. Gane, J. McCall & S. Munn, "Live Donor Liver Transplantation for Adults - Should We?," New Zealand Medical Journal 113 (2000) 363. [Back]
61 For a study on minors and incompetent donors see M. Safjan & D. Safjan, "Transplantation from Living Donors who are Unable to Give Consent for Organ Harvesting," Transplantation Proceedings 28 (1996) 3609-3611. [Back]
62 D. Lamb "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," in Price, D. P. T. & Akveld, H. (eds.), Living Organ Donation in Nineties: European Medico-Legal Perspectives (Leicester: Eurotold Project, 1995) 43-52, 49-50. Regarding the rights of terminally ill persons and children, E. Pellegrino writes: "Whenever valid consent is impossible and the experiment risky, only therapeutic research aimed at benefit to the subject seems morally defensible." Cf. E. D. Pellegrino, "Beneficence, Scientific Autonomy, and Self-Interest: Ethical Dilemmas in Clinical Research," Cambridge Quarterly of Health Care Ethics 4 (1992) 368. [Back]
63 A. D. Verhey, "Luther's Freedom of a Christian and a Patient's Autonomy," in J. F. Kilner, N. M. Cameron & D. L. Schiedermayer (eds.), Bioethics and the Future of Medicine (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1995) 82. [Back]
64 C. Byk, "Living Organ Donation: European Perspective," in Price, D. P. T. & Akveld, H. (eds.), Living Organ Donation in Nineties: European Medico-Legal Perspectives (Leicester: Eurotold Project, 1995) 53-62,56. [Back]
65 N. Biller-Andorno et al., "Who shall be Allowed to Give? Living Organ Donors and the Concept of Autonomy," Theoretical Medicine 22 (2001) 365. [Back]
66 D. Lamb "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 48-49. [Back]
67 T. A. Shannon, "The Communitarian Perspective: Autonomy and the Common Good," in M. A. Grodin (ed.), Meta Medical Ethics: The Philosophical Foundations of Bioethics (Dordrecht, Boston, London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995) 61, 65. [Back]
68 A. S. Daar, "Living Nonrelated Kidney Transplantation: Time to be Taken Seriously," Transplantation Proceedings 31 (1999) 1770. [Back]
69 D. Lamb, "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 45. [Back]
70 Cf. C. Elliott, "Doing Harm: Living Organ Donors, Clinical Research and the Tenth Man," Journal of Medical Ethics 21 (1995) 91-96. [Back]
71 S. Hou, "Expanding the Kidney Donor Pool: Ethical and Medical Considerations," Kidney International 58 (2000) 1822. [Back]
72 D. Lamb, "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 45. [Back]
73 D. Lamb, "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 45. [Back]
74 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 116-119. [Back]
75 I. Kleinman & F. H. Lowy, "Ethical Considerations in Living Organ Donation and a New Approach," Archives of Internal Medicine 152 (1992) 1487. [Back]
76 A. Spital, "Living Organ Donations is Still Ethically Acceptable," 529. [Back]
78 Cf. J. Finnis & A. Fisher, "Theology and the Four Principles: A Roman Catholic View I," in Gillon, R. (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994) 31-44, 39. [Back]
80 P. Kefalides, "Solid Organ Transplantation 2: Ethical Considerations," Annals of Internal Medicine 130/2 (1999) 169. [Back]
81 R. Rhodes, "A Review of Ethical Issues in Transplantation," The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 61/1 (1994) 77. [Back]
82 D. Bakker, "Living Related and Living Unrelated Organ Donation: A Clinician's View of the Ethical Aspects," in Price, D. P. T. & Akveld, H. (eds.), Living Organ Donation in Nineties: European Medico-Legal Perspectives (Leicester: Eurotold Project, 1995) 27. [Back]
83 For example, kidney donation is acceptable despite potential risk to the donor, as potential loss of function is not part of one's chosen means but only an acceptable side effect. Cf. D. Lamb "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 45. [Back]
84 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 167. [Back]
85 The Oxford English Dictionary describes the term paternalism as "the principle and practice of paternal administration; government as by a father; the claim or attempt to sully the needs or to regulate the life of a nation or community the same way a father does those of his children." Cf. J. A. Simpson & E. S. C. Weiner (eds.), The Oxford English Dictionary, Vol. XI (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 21989) 336. [Back]
86 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 154. [Back]
87 For a critique of the autonomy model and the paternalism model see E. D. Pellegrino & D. Thomasma, For the Patient's Good: The Restoration of Beneficence in Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) 12-25. [Back]
88 C. Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982) 24-63. [Back]
89 The harm principle obliges one to prevent harm. This principle is originally found in On Liberty by John Stuart Mill. It reads as follows: "That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others." Cf. J. S. Mill, On Liberty as reprinted in Essential Works of John Stuart Mill (New York: Bantam Books, 1961) 263. [Back]
90 A. Spital, M. Spital & R. Spital, "The Living Kidney Donor, Alive and Well," Archives of Internal Medicine 146 (1986) 1993-1996. [Back]
91 A. Spital & M. Spital, "Kidney Donation: Reflection," American Journal of Nephrology 7 (1987) 50. [Back]
92 M. G. McGeown, "Ethics for the Use of Live Donors in Kidney Transplantation," American Heart Journal 75 (1968) 711-714. [Back]
93 As quoted in A. Spital & M. Spital, "Kidney Donation: Reflection," 49-54. [Back]
94 C. H. Feller & J. R. Marshall, "Kidney Donors- the Myth of Informed Consent," American Journal of Psychiatry 121 (1970) 79-85. [Back]
95 J. P. Kassirer, "Adding Insult to Injury: Usurping Patients' Prerogatives," New England Journal of Medicine 308 (1983) 898-901. [Back]
96 C. R. Stiller et al., "Living Related Donation," Transplant Proceeding 17/6 Supplement 3 (1985) 85-100. [Back]
97 A. Spital & M. Spital, "Kidney Donation: Reflection," 51. [Back]
98 R. M. Eisendrath, R. D. Guttmann & J. E. Murray, "Psychologic Considerations in the Selection of Kidney Transplant Donors," Surgery, Gynaecology and Obstetrics 129 (1969) 243-248. [Back]
99 A. Spital & M. Spital, "Kidney Donation: Reflection," 51. [Back]
100 A. Spital & M. Spital, "Donor's Choice or Hobson's Choice?," Archives of Internal Medicine 145 (1985) 1297-1301. [Back]
101 R. Gillon, "Transplantation: A Framework for Analysis of the Ethical Issues," Transplantation Proceedings 22 (1990) 902. [Back]
102 D. Bakker, "Living Related and Living Unrelated Organ Donation: A Clinician's View of the Ethical Aspects," 29. [Back]
103 T. Gutmann & W. Land, "The Ethics of Organ Allocation: The State of Debate," Transplantation Reviews 11 (1997) 191-192. The allocation of organs means the procedure for distributing the organs among the recipients who are waiting for them. For a study on allocation of scarce resources (organs) see Howard Brody, Ethical Decisions in Medicine (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 21981) 213-230. [Back]
104 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 259-262. [Back]
105 N. Daniels, Just Health Care (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988) as quoted in T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 260. [Back]
106 R. Rhodes, "A Review of Ethical Issues in Transplantation," The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 61/1 (1994) 79. [Back]
107 The Council of the Transplantation Society, "Commercialization in Transplantation: The Problems and Some Guidelines for Practice," Lancet 2 (1985) 715-716. [Back]
108 M. J. Cherry, "Persons and their Bodies: Rights, Responsibilities, and the Sale of Organs," in M. J. Cherry (ed.), Persons and their Bodies: Rights, Responsibilities, Relationships (Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999) 1-32. [Back]
109 J. Boyle, "Personal Responsibility and Freedom in Health Care: A Contemporary Natural Law Perspective," in M. J. Cherry (ed.), Persons and their Bodies: Rights, Responsibilities, Relationships (Dordrecht/Boston/London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999) 135. [Back]
110 R. Rhodes, "A Review of Ethical Issues in Transplantation," 80. [Back]
111 J. Radcliffe-Richards et al., "The Case of Allowing Kidney Sales," The Lancet 351 (1998) 1951. [Back]
112 A. L. Caplan & B. Virnig, "Is Altruism Enough? Required Request and the Donation of Cadaver Organs and Tissues in the United States," Critical Care Clinics 6/4 (1990) 1016. [Back]
113 L. R. Churchill, "Theories of Justice," in C. M. Kjellstrand & J. B. Dossetor (eds.), Ethical Problems in Dialysis and Transplantation (Dordrect: Kluwer Academic, 1992) 21-34 as quoted in J. S. Cameron and Raymond Hoffenberg, "The Ethics of Organ Transplantation Reconsidered: Paid Organ Donation and the use of Executed Prisoners as Donors," 727. [Back]
114 Staff Reporter, "Taking on the Market," The Economic Times Madras, 23 July 1994, 7; A. Shrivastava et al., "Quest for Organ Donors: Ethical Considerations in India," Transplantation Proceedings 39 (1998) 3629. [Back]
115 J. B. Dossetor & V. Manickavel, "Ethics in Organ Donation: Contrasts in two Cultures," Transplantation Proceedings 23/5 (1991) 2508. For a view on poverty in health care system of developing countries, see H. Begum, "Poverty and Health Ethics in the Developing Countries," Bioethics 15/1 (2001) 50-56. [Back]
116 T. Koch, "They Might as Well Be in Bolivia: Race, Ethnicity and the Problem of Solid Organ Donation," Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 20 (1999) 573. [Back]
117 L. F. Ross & E. Steve Woodle, "Ethical Issues in Increasing Living Kidney Donations by Expanding Kidney Paired Exchange Programs," Transplantation 69 (2000) 1542. [Back]
118 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 1st edition, 190. [Back]
119 T. L. Beauchamp & J. F. Childress, Principles of Biomedical Ethics, 5th edition, 49-51. [Back]
120 D. Lamb, "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 44. [Back]
121 According to T. Engelhardt, the principle of autonomy remains basically deontological in its application. The principle of autonomy takes rights and obligations independently of concerns for achieving what is good and avoiding what is evil. The sphere of the principle of beneficence is teleological in its application. It grounds particular rights and obligations in terms of their achieving what is good and what is harmful. Cf. H. Tristram Engelhardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986) 82. [Back]
122 R. Gillon, "Transplantation: A Framework for Analysis of Ethical Issues," Transplantation Proceedings 22 (1990) 902-903. [Back]
123 R. A. Sells, "Transplants," in Gillon, R. (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994) 1006. [Back]
124 M. G. de Ortúzar, C. Soratti & I. Velez, "Bioethics and Organ Transplantation," Transplantation Proceedings 29 (1997) 3628. [Back]
126 Regarding the respect for autonomy of the donor, there are different norms in different places. Relatives in some countries may even have the legal authority to overrule a person's wish to donate organs. Attitudes towards convicted prisoners and executed criminals may differ. For instance, in China over 2000 criminals each year donate organs, while in the UK and several other European countries the practice of excising organs from prisoners is forbidden. Cf. D. Lamb, "Ethical Aspects of Different Types of Living Organ Donation," 44. [Back]
129 For R. M. Gula, "concrete principles are limited expressions of value and of how to promote the value. Since they cannot account for the details of all conceivable circumstances in which they must be applied, they are inevitably open to diverse applications. For example, they do not account for the contextual factors of cases, such as the persons involved and their gender, cultural backgrounds and life stories, the consequences that may result, or the significance of relationships in a person's life." Cf. R. M. Gula, "Normative Methods in Ethics: Surveying the Landscape of Ethical Pluralism," in T. A. Salzman (ed.), Method and Catholic Moral Theology: The Ongoing Reconstruction (Omaha, Nebraska: Creighton University Press, 1999) 10. [Back]
130 E. D. Pellegrino, "Agape and Ethics: Some Reflections on Medical Moral from a Catholic Christian Perspective," in E. D. Pellegrino et al., (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals: Foundational Issues (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989) 288. [Back]
131 Albert Plé, "The Morality of Duty and Obsessional Neurosis," Cross Currents 36 (1986) 344. [Back]
132 K. W. Wildes, "Libertarianism and Ownership of the Human Body," in H. A. M Ten Have, J. V. Welief & S. F. Spicker (eds.), Ownership of the Human Body: Philosophical Considerations on the Use of the Human Body and its Parts in Health Care (Dordrecht, Boston, London: Kluwer Academic Publications, 1998) 155. According to S. Wilkinson & E. Garrard, "organ donation is (often) supererogatory." S. Wilkinson & E. Garrard, "Bodily Integrity and the Sale of Human Organs," Journal of Medical Ethics 22 (1996) 338. [Back]
133 Cf. J. Finnis & A. Fisher, "Theology and the Four Principles: a Roman Catholic View I," in R. Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (Chichester, New York: John Wileysons, 1996) 41; W. F. May, "Religious Justifications for Donating Body Parts," The Hastings Center Report 15/1 (1985) 42. [Back]
134 F. T. Rapaport, "Current Status and Future Prospects for Organ Procurement and Retrieval," Transplantation Proceedings 31 (1999) 1764. [Back]
135 A. S. Daar et al., "Ethics and Commerce in Live Donor Renal Transplantation: Classification of the Issues," Transplantation Proceedings 22/3 (1990) 923; R. M. Arnold, L. A. Siminoff & J. E. Frader (eds.), "Ethical Issues in Organ Procurement," Critical Care Clinics 12/1 (1996) 30. [Back]
136 John Paul II, "Special Address on the XVII World Congress of the Transplantation Society, August 27-September 1, 2000," Transplantation Proceedings 33 (2001) 31. [Back]
137 S. Wilkinson & E. Garrard, "Bodily Integrity and the Sale of Human Organs," 335. [Back]
138 Ibid., 335. Sometimes we can see "double altruism cases," which means that someone sells his/her organs to pay for another person's operation. Cf. B. Brecher, "Organs for Transplant: Donation or Payment?," in R. Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, 1994) 996. [Back]
139 E. Eyskens, "Ethics in Actual Surgery," Acta Chir Belg 94 (1994) 187. [Back]
140 R. W. Steiner & B. Gert, "Ethical Selection of Living Kidney Donors," American Journal of Kidney Diseases 36/4 (2000) 679. [Back]
141 R. Rhodes, "A Review of Ethical Issues in Transplantation," The Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine 61/1 (1994) 78. [Back]
142 A. Spital, "Living Organ Donations is Still Ethically Acceptable," Archives of Internal Medicine 153 (1993) 529. [Back]
143 Cf. P. Schotsmans, Personalism in Medical Ethics," Ethical Perspectives 6 (1999) 13. [Back]
144 In this context the concept of vulnerability is relevant. It is the basic norm for care, which means "responsibility and empathy with the other, it motivates ethical concern for the fragility of the other." Cf. J. Rendtorff & P. Kemp, Basic Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw, Vol. 1 (Copenhagen: Center for Ethics and Law, 2000) 49. [Back]
145 M. Merleau-Ponty, Le philosophe et son ombre (Paris: Gallimard, 1960) 52ff as quoted in F. J. Illhardt, "Ownership of the Human Body: Deontological Approaches," in H. A. M. Ten Have, J. V. M. Welie & S. F. Spicker (Dordrecht/ Boston/ London: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1998) 200. [Back]
146 In order to show the inter-human relationship in moral evaluation, C. J. Van Der Poel says that the physiological element is not the only main criterion in the moral evaluation. We have to consider "the relation of the human action toward human existence and dignity in their transcendent relation to God which is decisive for moral good or evil." C. J. Van Der Poel, "The Principle of Double Effect," in C. E. Curran (ed.), Absolutes in Moral Theology (Washington: Corpus Books, 1968) 196. [Back]
147 For Regan, "the sacrifice of a healthy member for another serves the person in the interpersonal relationship we have spoken of. In each case it can be said that the diminution of physical being is compensated for by an acquisition of a personal value." Augustine Regan, "The Basic Morality of Organic Transplants Between Living Humans," Studia Moralia 3 (1965) 354. Gallagher writes: "the gift of an organ for transplantation not only may help another, but may perfect the donor in his inter subjective being." J. Gallagher, "The Principle of Totality: Man's Stewardship of His Body," in McCarthy, D. (ed.), Moral Theology Today: Certitude and Doubts (St. Louis: Pope John Center, 1984) 233. [Back]
148 P. A. Marshall, D. C. Thomasma & A. Daar, "Marketing Human Organs: The Autonomy Paradox," Theoretical Medicine 17 (1996) 15. [Back]
149 A. S. Daar, "Living Nonrelated Kidney Transplantation: Time to be Taken Seriously," Transplantation Proceedings 31 (1999) 1770. M. Lock also holds a similar view. Cf. M. Lock, "Cultural Aspects of Organ Donation and Transplantation," Transplantation Proceedings 31 (1999) 1346. [Back]
150 Cf. J. Selling, "The Human Person," in B. Hoose (ed.), Christian Ethics an Introduction (London: Cassel, 1998) 102. [Back]