Principle of Totality and its Relevance in Bioethics


Endnotes:

1 Today it is very difficult to define the term quality of life. It various from individual to individual. Generally speaking quality refers to the idea excellence. There are two types of the quality of life, namely, subjective and objective quality of life. 1) A subjective quality of life can be defined as something that may reflect the subjective satisfaction by an individual with his/her own personal life (physical, mental, social situation). 2) Quality of life is seen from an objective point of view: In this sense, quality of life represents an evaluation by an onlooker of another's life situation. This happens in clinical settings when a physician or a member of the patient's family or a friend makes an evaluative judgement about the condition of the patient to decide whether to initiate or continue life-sustaining procedure. [Back]

2 J. P. Boyle, The Sterilization Controversy: A New Crisis for the Catholic Hospitals (New York, Ramsey, Toronto: Paulist Press, 1976) 10; J. C. Ford & G. Kelly, Contemporary Moral Theology, Vol. II (Westminster: The Newman Press, 1963) 322-324; The Monks of Solemnes (ed.), The Human Body (Jamaica Plains: Daughters of St. Paul, 1960) 279. [Back]

3 T. J. O'Donnell, Morals in Medicine (Westminster, Maryland: The Newman Press, 1956) 70. For a clear distinction between the principle of double effect and the proportionate reasoning, Cf. R. M. Gula, Reason Informed by Faith (New York: Paulist Press, 1989) 265-282. [Back]

4 Cf. G. G. Grisez, Contraception and Natural Law (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1964) 28, 100. [Back]

5 T. J. O'Donnell, Morals in Medicine, 70. [Back]

6 Cf. O. N. Griese, Catholic Identity in Health Care: Principles and Practice (Massachusetts: The Pope John Center, 1987) 215-216. [Back]

7 C. E. Curran, History and Contemporary Issues in Moral Theology (New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, 1996) 38. [Back]

8 Cf. A. M. Hamelin, "Man's Rights over His Body and the Principle of Totality," Concilium 15 (1966) 89. [Back]

9 D. Pizzonia, The Medico-Moral Question of Organ Retrieval From Anencephalics: Status Questions (Roma: Licentiate Thesis in Moral Theology, Pontifical Universitas Gregoriana, 1988) 81. [Back]

10 AAS 44 (1952) 779-789; A. Regan, "The Basic Morality of Organic Transplants Between Living Humans," Studia Moralia III (1965) 329. [Back]

11 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," Augustinianum III/1 (1963) 29. [Back]

12 Aristotle, Politics, Book 1, Chap. 1. Aristotle says that "as in other departments of science, so in the politics, the compound should always be resolved into the simple elements or least parts of the whole." Cf. The Works of Aristotle: Politica, ed. W. D. Ross, translated by B. Jowett, Vol. X (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, first published, 1921, 1972) Book 1, chapter 1, 1252a. [Back]

13 Cf. M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 29. [Back]

14 The Works of Aristotle: Metaphysica, trans. English W. D. Ross (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1908, 21928, reprinted 1972) Book Δ. [Back]

15 Cf. H. Driesch, Philosophie des Organischen (Leipzig: Engelman, 1921) 326 as quoted in M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 30. [Back]

16 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 29. [Back]

17 Cf. The Works of Aristotle: Metaphysica, trans. English W. D. Ross (Oxford: the Clarendon Press, 1908, 21928, reprinted 1972) Book Δ, c. 26. [Back]

18 T. Aquinas, In Metaphysicam Aristotelis Commentaria, Lib. V, lect. 21, Editio M. R Cathala & Raymundi M. Spiazzi (Roma: Marietti, 1950) 282-283; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 30. [Back]

19 T. Aquinas, In Metaphysicam Aristotelis Commentaria, Lib. XII, lect. 12, Editio M. R Cathala & Raymundi M. Spiazzi, 611-616; Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Pars Prima, q. 76, art 8, Latin text and English translation by T. Suttor, Vol. XI (London, New York: Blackfriars, 1070) 82-87. [Back]

20 T. Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Pars Prima, q. 76, art. 8, 1 c. [Back]

21 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 33. [Back]

22 T. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Lib. IV, c. 35, Edita Leonis XIII P. M. Commentaris Francisci De Sylvestris Ferrariensis (Roma: Typs Riccardi Garroni, 1930) 125-127; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 34. [Back]

23 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and Its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Faculty of Religion, Claremont Graduate School, Claremont, 1972) 17-18. [Back]

24 Thomas explains: "When assigning the end or goal of any whole and its parts, we find first that individual parts are directed to their proper operations, as the eye is to seeing; secondly, that inferior parts are for the sake of the more noble, as the senses serve the intellect and the lungs the heart; thirdly, that all parts are for the perfection of the whole, just as matter is for form, since parts are like matter in relation to the whole; and finally, that man in his entirety is for some extrinsic end, namely, that he may find joy in God." Cf. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Ia q. 65, a. 2, Latin text, English translation, Introduction, Notes, Appendices & Glossary by W. A. Wallace, Vol. X (London, New York: Blackfriars, 1967) 11-12. [Back]

25 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 38; T. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Lib. 1, c. 86, Editio Leonis XIII P. M, Commentaris Francisci De Sylvestris Ferrariensis (Roma: Typis Riccardi Garroni, 1918) 236-237; T. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, Lib. III, c. 69, Editio Leonis XIII P. M, Commentaris Francisci De Sylvestris Ferrariensis (Roma: Typis Riccardi Garroni, 1926) 188-189. [Back]

26 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 17. [Back]

27 Cf. T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, IIa-IIae, q. 65, art. 1, Vol. XXXVIII, Latin text, English translation, Introduction M. Chapliancy (New York: Blackfriars, 1975) 50. [Back]

28 Ibid., 51. [Back]

29 Ibid., 51. [Back]

30 T. Moore, "The Morality of Sterilizing Operation," The Ecclesiastical Review 106 (1942) 445. [Back]

31 T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Vol. XLI, IIa-IIae, q. 108, a. 4, English version by T. C. O'brien (Oxford: Blackfriars, 1975) 131. [Back]

32 T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, Vol. XXXVIII, IIa-IIae, q. 65, a. 1, Latin text, English translation, introduction by M. Chapliancy (New York: Blackfriars, 1975) 51. [Back]

33 B. Cunningham, The Morality of Organic Transplantation, Studies in Sacred Theology, 86 (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1944) 34. [Back]

34 T. Aquinas, Summa Theologiae, II-III, q. 64, a. 5. ad . 3. [Back]

35 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 21-22. [Back]

36 B. Elbel, Theologia Moralis Decalogalis (Vindel: Sumptibus Mathiae Wolff Augustae, 1737) Pars. IV, Conf. I, Paras. I; F. Henno, Tractatus Moralis in Decalogi Praecepta (Tornaci: Ex typographia Jacobi, 1711), De Quinto Praecepto Decalogi, art. 1, conc. II; Pighin, J. B., Cursus Theologiae Moralis (Verona: Cinquetti, 1926), Vol. III, n. 180, 2. B. Cunningham deals with the teachings of the above moral theolgians, see pp. 24-26. [Back]

37 A. Liguori follows the general principle according to which "mutilation is licit only for the conservation of the whole body." Cf. A. Liguori, Theologia Moralis, Vol. I, n. 375, resp. 2. Similar ideas can be seen in C. R. Billuart, Summa Sancti Thomae Hodiernis Academiarum Moribus Accomodata (Paris: Plame, 1846), Tom. IV, Dissert. X, art. IX, n. 1; J. Carriere, Praelectiones Theologicae (Lovanii: Fonteyn, 1846-1848), Tom. II, Pars II, Sect. II, Cap. I assert.2; D. Neyraguet, Compendium Theologiae Moralis (Tornaci: Casterman Tornaci, 1841), Tr. X, Cap. 1, q. 4; F. P. Kenrick, Theologia Moralis (Mechlinae: Dessain, 1860-1861), Vol. I, n. 138; A. Martinet, Theologia Moralis (Paris: Palmé, 1868), Tom. III, p. 219, n. II; P. Scavini, Theologia Moralis Universa (Mediolani: Oliva, 1869), Lib. II, n. 708; J. Gury, Compendium Theolgiae Moralis, ed. A. Ballerni (Rome: Giachetti,1869), Tom. I, n. 391, 7; E. Genicot, Institutiones Theologiae Moralis (Burssles: Universelle, 171951) Vol. 1, n. 363, iv; L. Wouters, Manuale Theologiae Moralis, Tom. I, Diss. III, Pars. III, Sect. II, n. 526; J. Aertnys, Theolgia Moralis, ed. C. A. Damen (Taurini: Marietti, 1947) Tom. I, n. 567, v; C. Marc, et X. Gestermann, Institutiones Morales Alphonsianae, ed. Raus (Lugdani: Vitte, 1922-1923) Vol. I, n. 75; A. Michael, "Mutilation," Dictionnaire de Théologie Catholique, X, 2569; J. Ubach, Compendium Theologiae Moralis (Friburgi Brisgoviae: 1926), Vol. I, Cap. 5, de V. Praecepto, art. I, n. II. See also B. Cunningham, 36. [Back]

38 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 22. [Back]

39 B. Cunningham, 39. [Back]

40 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and Its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 24. [Back]

41 Ibid., 25. [Back]

42 Cf. Pius XI, "Casti Connubii," AAS 22 (1930) 565. The English translation is taken from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 34. [Back]

43 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and Its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 32. [Back]

44 G. Kelly, "Pope Pius XII and the Principle of Totality," 374. [Back]

45 A. Regan, "The Basic Morality of Organic Transplants Between Living Humans," 329. [Back]

46 For the biographical details and historical background of Pius XII see G. Gonella, A World to Reconstruct: Pius XII on Peace and Reconstruction, English translation by T. L. Bouscaren (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing, 1944); C. H. Doyle, The Life of Pope Pius XII (New York: Didier, 1945). [Back]

47 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 291. [Back]

48 Pius XII, "Address to the Urologists," October 8, 1953, AAS 45 (1953) 675; Pius XII, "Address to Cornea Donors," May 14, 1956, AAS 48 (1956) 461; A. Regan, "The Basic Morality of Organic Transplants Between Living Humans," 329. [Back]

49 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 291. [Back]

50 AAS 46 (1954) 598, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 320. [Back]

51 AAS 45 (1953) 279, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 228. [Back]

52 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 292. [Back]

53 AAS 45 (1953) 279; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 292. [Back]

54 AAS 45 (1953) 279, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 230. [Back]

55 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 292. [Back]

56 AAS 43 (1951) 838; AAS 48 (1956) 678-679; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 292. [Back]

57 AAS 44 (1952) 746; AAS 45 (1953) 747; AAS 48 (1956) 461; J. Michael Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and Its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 35. [Back]

58 According to E. F. Healy, "mutilation is lawful only when necessary for preserving health of the whole body. The reason is that man has the ownership neither of the whole body nor of its various parts. He is merely the custodian of his body and has the obligation of using it according to God's wishes." Cf. E. F. Healy, Moral Guidance, A Textbook in Principles of Conduct for Colleges and Universities, 157. Similarly, C. J. McFadden also argues that "any mutilation that did in the interests of once own body was immoral." Cf. C. J McFadden, Medical Ethics, 4th ed., 317. [Back]

59 J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 36. [Back]

60 AAS 44 (1952) 782-783, 786. Cf. Martin Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 294. [Back]

61 Ibid., 37; AAS 41 (1949) 558; AAS 45 (1953) 279. [Back]

62 AAS 44 (1952) 782; The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 199. [Back]

63 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 294. [Back]

64 AAS 45 (1953) 284-286. [Back]

65 Cf. Discorsi e Radiomessagi, VI (1944-45) 184. English translation is taken from K. D. O'Rourke & P. Boyle (ed.), Medical Ethics: Sources of Catholic Teachings (St. Louis: The Catholic Health Association of the United States, 1989) 312. [Back]

66 Cf. AAS 44 (1952) 786, English translation is taken from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 204. [Back]

67 AAS 45 (1953) 747; Pius XII, "Address to the 16th Intern. Convention of Military Medicine, Oct. 19, 1953," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 281. V. L. Heyln (professor of moral theology in the Faculty of religious science, KU Leuven) after mentioning the ideas of Pius XII, he notes that "thus man possesses an innate, direct competence to use his body and to regulate it, within the limits of natural efficiency of the principle of totality, in order to protect it from violation from within and without." Cf. V. L. Heylen, "Catholic Ethics on Life and the Body," Louvain Studies II (1969) 6. [Back]

68 AAS 48 (1956) 461, English translation from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 374. [Back]

69 Pius XII, "Fourth International Congress of the International Congress of Catholic Doctors, 30th September, 1949," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 114-115; AAS 41 (1949) 558. [Back]

70 AAS 50 (1958) 693-694; Pius XII, "The International Congress of the International College of Neuro-Psycho-Pharmacology, 9th September, 1958," Tablet 212 (1958) 245-246. [Back]

71 Cf. AAS 50 (1958) 693-694, English translation is from J. M. Cox, A Critical Analysis of the Roman Catholic Medico-Moral Principles of Totality and its Applicability to Sterilizing Mutilations, 38. [Back]

72 J. R. Connery, "Notes on Moral Theology," Theological Studies 25 (1954) 602. [Back]

73 G. Kelly, "Pope Pius XII and the Principle of Totality," 379. [Back]

74 AAS 45 (1953) 279, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 228. [Back]

75 AAS 50 (1958) 269: Pius XII, Thirteenth Congress of the International Society of Applied Psychology, 10th April, 1958," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 93 (1960) 113; "The Pope and the Psychologists," Tablet 211 (1958) 373-374. [Back]

76 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 293. [Back]

77 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 299-300. [Back]

78 AAS 50 (1958) 693-694; Pius XII, "The International Congress of the International College of Neuro-Psycho-Pharmacology, 9th September, 1958," Tablet 212 (1958) 245-246. [Back]

79 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 301. [Back]

80 Pius XII, "The Italian Medical-biological Union of St. Luke (Nov.12, 1944)," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 54. [Back]

81 AAS 44 (1952) 782; The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 198. [Back]

82 AAS 45 (1953) 674-675. [Back]

83 Pius XII, "World Medical Association, 30th September, 1954," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 314-315. [Back]

84 AAS 45 (1953) 747, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 281. [Back]

85 Cf. The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 278. [Back]

86 AAS 50 (1958) 693. [Back]

87 AAS 48 (1956) 462; Pius XII, "The Italian association of Corneal donors, 14th May, 1956," The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 375; P. Abraham, Good of the Earth Destined for All (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Theology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 1998) 133-135. [Back]

88 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 317. [Back]

89 AAS 44 (1952) 786, English translation is taken from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 204. [Back]

90 AAS 45 (1953) 748, English translation is taken from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 282. [Back]

91 AAS 46 (1954) 592; AAS 48 (1956) 461-462; AAS 48 (1956) 679; The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 315, 375. [Back]

92 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 318. [Back]

93 AAS 44 (1952) 786-787; AAS 45 (1953) 748; AAS 48 (1956) 461; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 318. [Back]

94 AAS 44 (1952) 786; Pius XII, "International Congress on the Histopathology of the Nervous System (September 13, 1952)," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 204. [Back]

95 AAS 35 (1943) 13; Pius XII, "The Holy Season of Christmas and Sorrowing Humanity," The Catholic Mind 41/ 961 (1943) 48. [Back]

96 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 319. [Back]

97 Ibid., 320. [Back]

98 Pius XII, "The Italian Medical-Biological Union of St. Luke, November 12, 1944," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 55-56. [Back]

99 AAS 44 (1952) 786-788; Gerald Kelley, "Pius XII and the Principle of Totality," 375. [Back]

100 This point also is seen in his speech to the International Congress of Histopathology of the Nervous System, September 13, 1952: AAS 44 (1952) 786; The Sixteenth Session of the International Office for the Documentation of Military Medicine, October 19, 1953: AAS 45 (1953) 748; The Eight Assembly of the World Medical Association, September 30, 1954: AAS 46 (1954) 592; The Promoting Committee of the Italian Association of Corneal Donors, May 14, 1956: AAS 48 (1956) 461-462; Seventh International Congress of Catholic Doctors, September 11, 1956: AAS 48 (1956) 677-686. [Back]

101 Cf. "Sterilization Law in Germany," The Ecclesiastical Review 95 (1936) 50. The original source is in Deutsche Justice, Rechtspflege 57, n. 21, Edition A, 24th May, 1935, pp. 780-782. [Back]

102 Cf. M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 538-539. [Back]

103 AAS 44 (1952) 788; AAS 48 (1956) 680. [Back]

104 AAS 48 (1956) 461, English translation is from The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 375-376. [Back]

105 AAS 48 (1956) 679; M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 321. [Back]

106 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 321. [Back]

107 There are arguments about capital punishment and the principle of totality. Pius XII does not include the principle of totality in this case. He says: "Even when it is the question of the execution of a man condemned to death, the State does not dispose of the individual's right to live. It is then reserved to the public power to deprive the condemned of the benefit of life, in expiation of his fault, when already, by his crime, he has dispossessed himself of the right to life." Cf. AAS 44 (1952) 787. Pius XII, "International Congress on the Histopathology of the Nervous System (September 13, 1952)," in The Monks of Solesmes, The Human Body, 205-206. [Back]

108 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 323-324. [Back]

109 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality, III," 558. [Back]

110 G. Kelly, "Pius XII and the Principle of Totality," 396. [Back]

111 Cf. D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Roman Catholic Medical Ethics in North America (New York and Toronto: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1979) 231; B. Johnstone, "From Physicalism to Personalism," Studia Moralia 30 (1992) 71-96. [Back]

112 Cf. D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 312. [Back]

113 Ibid., 231. [Back]

114 D. F. Kelly enumerates the characteristics of physicalism and ecclesiastical positivism: "Physicalism, like scientific technological medicine, operated by arriving at solutions on the basis of physical, cause-and-effect criteria. It enabled the moralist, like the scientific physician, to reach conclusions applicable in each instance where the physical details were the same. It enabled correct scientific answers of a universally applicable nature to be deduced from the data. Like scientific, technological medicine, it evolved out of an Aristotelian-Thomistic system where nature, secondary causality, and rationality were emphasized." Cf. D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 400-401. [Back]

115 A. O'Malley, The Ethics of Medical Homicide and Mutilation (New York: Devin - Adair, 1919) 26-27; D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 295. [Back]

116 D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 295- 296. [Back]

117 P. Finney, Moral Problems in Hospital Practices: A Practical Handbook (St. Lous: Herder, 1922, 51935) 28. [Back]

118 Cf. D. Prümer, Handbook of Moral Theology translated from Latin by G. W. Shelton (Mcmlvi: The Mercier Press, Cork, 1955) 126. [Back]

119 H. Merkelbach, Summa Theologiae Moralis, Vol. II, n. 370. [Back]

120 H. Noldin, Summa Theologiae Moralis, ed. A. Schmitt, Vol. II, (Oeniponte: Typis Et Sumptibus F. Rauch, 1935) n. 275. [Back]

121 A.Tranquerey, Synopsis Theologiae Moralis et Pastoralis, Vol. III (Rome: Desclee, 1937) n. 275. [Back]

122 Cf. H. Davis, Moral and Pastoral Theology, in four volumes, Vol. II (London: Sheed and Ward, 1935) 128. [Back]

123 S. A. La Rochelle & C. T. Fink, Handbook of Medical Ethics for Nurses, Physicians, and Priests, trans. M. E. Poupore (Westminster: Newman, 1943)133 as quoted in D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 327. [Back]

124 C. J. McFadden, Medical Ethics (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis. 4th edition, 1956) 313-317. [Back]

125 J. P. Kenny, Principles of Medical Ethics (Cork, Ireland: Mercier Press, 1st ed. 1953) 105. [Back]

126 J. Paquin, Morale et medecine (Montreal: Comité des H™pitaux du Québec, 1955, 1960) 248; D. F. Kelly, The Emergency of Medical Ethics, 379. [Back]

127 E. Healy, Medical Ethics (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1956) 122. [Back]

128 N. Lohkamp, The Morality of Hysterectomy Operations, Studies in Sacred Theology no. 92, A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of School of Sacred Theology of the Catholic University of America in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Sacred Theology (Washington: The Catholic University of America Press, 1956) 19. [Back]

129 Cf. P. Ludovico Bender, "Mutilazione" in F. Roberti & P. Palazzini (eds.), Dizionario Di Teologia Morale (Roma: Editrice Studium, 1954) 865. [Back]

130 Cf. P. Palazzini (ed.), Dictionarium Morale et Canonocum, Vol. III L-Q (Rome: Catholic Book Agency, 1966) 334. His latest article is in favour of living organ donation and transplantation on the basis of charity. Cf. P. Palazzini, "Il Problema Etico Dei Trapianti," Divinitas 29 (1985) 13. [Back]

131 Latin Text: AAS 60 (1968) 481-503. English translation: Paul VI, "Humanae Vitae," in C. Carlen, The Papal Encyclicals 1958-1981 (Raleigh: McGrath Publishing Company, 1981) 223-224, 226, 227-228. For a comprehensive study on articles 3, 14, and 17 of HV Cf. J. A. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Theology, KU Leuven, Leuven, 1977) 214-219. [Back]

132 Cf. J. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 215. [Back]

133 Cf. J. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 215-216. [Back]

134 For instance, "according to this theory, the possibility of conception could pose a threat to the person's well-being on the wider scale (e.g. spouses not being psychologically capable of supporting a new birth) thus justifying the use of contraception (human intervention) for the sake of the whole person." Cf. J. A. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 216. [Back]

135 Cf. J. A. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 216. [Back]

136 Ibid., 216; For a detailed study on this type of argument see Kevin T. Kelly, "Moral Theology Forum: A Positive approach to Humanae Vitae," 263-269. [Back]

137 J. A. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 216-217. [Back]

138 J.A. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 217. [Back]

139 Here the reference goes to the address of Pius XII to the Urologists and to the Cornea Donors. Cf. AAS 45 (1953) 674-675; AAS 48 (1956) 461-462. [Back]

140 J. E. Smith, Humanae Vitae: A Generation Later (Washington: The Catholic University of America, 1991) 89. We can find that many authors deny the use of the principle of totality to justify the use of contraception. Cf. K. T. Kelly, "Moral Theology Forum: A Positive Approach to Humanae Vitae," Clergy Review 57 (1972) 108-20, 174-186, 263-275, 330-348, especially 261-73; J. F. Kippley, Birth Control and Marriage Covenant (Collegeville, Minn: Liturgical Press, 1976) 73-82. [Back]

141 R. McInerny, "Humanae Vitae and the Judgment of Conscience," in Humanae Viate: 20 Anni Dopo: Congresso internazionale di teologia Morale, Roma, 9-12 November 1988 (Milan: Edizione Ares, 1989) 199-209, 208. [Back]

142 J. Selling, The Reaction to Humanae Vitae: A Study in Special and Fundamental Theology, Vol. II, 217; J. Selling, "Moral Teaching, Traditional Teaching and Humanae Vitae," Louvain Studies 7 (1978) 28, 30, 36, 40. [Back]

143 L. Janssens, "Consideration on Humanae Vitae," Louvain Studies 2 (1969) 231-253, 249.. [Back]

144 Cf. L. Janssens, "Consideration on Humanae Vitae," 250. [Back]

145 This expression is given in J. Connery, "Notes on Moral Theology," Theological Studies 15 (1954) 602. [Back]

146 Cf. A. M. Hamelin, "Man's Rights over his Body and the Principle of Totality," Concilium 15 (1966) 101. [Back]

147 A. M. Hamelin, "Man's Rights over his Body and the Principle of Totality," 94. [Back]

148 T. Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, lib. III, Cap. xvii, Editio Leonis XIII P. M, Commentaris Francisci De Sylvestris Ferrariensis, 40; A. M. Hamelin, "Man's Rights over his Body and the Principle of Totality," 94. Bonaventure says that the human world is based not only on feeling but also on charity. For an extensive study on Bonaventure's social thought see M. de Benedicts, The Social Thought of St. Bonaventure (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1946) 113-114, 194, 255-261. [Back]

149 A. Vermeersch, Theologia Moralis, Vol. II, 261-262; Bert Cunningham, 70. [Back]

150 B. Cunningham, The Morality of Organic Transplantation is a doctoral dissertation submitted at the theological faculty of Catholic University America in 1944. [Back]

151 D. F. Kelly observes that Cunningham remains faithful to the teaching authority of the magisterium. Cf. D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 333. [Back]

152 J. McCarthy, "The Morality of Organic Transplantation," The Irish Ecclesiastical Record 67 (1946) 193. [Back]

153 B. Cunningham, 18. [Back]

154 D. F. Kelly, The Emergence of Medical Ethics, 334. [Back]

155 G. Kelly, "Medico-Moral Notes," The Linacre Quarterly 20 (1953) 112; G. Kelly, "The Morality of Mutilation: Towards a Revision of the Treatise," 341; J. McCarthy, "The Morality of Organic Transplantation," Irish Ecclesiastical Record 67 (1946) 192-198. [Back]

156 G. Kelly, Medico-Moral Problems (St. Louis, MO: The Catholic Hospital Association, 1961) 247. [Back]

157 G. Kelly, "The Morality of Mutilation: Towards a Revision of the Treatise," 332. [Back]

158 J. C. Ford & G. Kelly, "Notes on Moral Theology, 1953" Theological Studies 15 (1954) 76-77. [Back]

159 M. Nolan, "The Positive Doctrine of Pope Pius XII on the Principle of Totality," 317. [Back]

160 Cf. C. McFadden, Medical Ethics (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis, 61967) 290. [Back]

161 B. M. Ashley & K. D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis (St. Louis: The Catholic Health Association of the United States St. Louis, 21982) 44. [Back]

162 B. M. Ashley & K. D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis, 311. [Back]

163 According to the moral teaching of theologians, "organ transplants between the living is of more than antiquarian interest. First of all, it shows clearly that the opinion of theologians can evolve. Second, it shows that by refining accepted principles, and not denying them, a way can be found to prove new positions. Third, it demonstrates that many ethical problems are solved by starting with intuitive judgements and then examine the principles in the light of the solution proposed in the intuitive judgement." Cf. B. M. Ashley & K. D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis, 311. [Back]

164 B. M. Ashley, Theologies of the Body: Humanist and Christian, 421. [Back]

165 B. M. Ashley & K. D. O'Rourke, Health Care Ethics: A Theological Analysis, 311-312. [Back]

166 National Conference of Catholic Bishops, Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Facilities (Washington: U. S. Catholic Bishop's Conference, 1975) as quoted in W. E. Stempsey, "Organ Markets and Human Dignity: On Selling your Body and Soul," Christian Bioethics 6 (2000) 195-204, 198. [Back]

167 U. S. Bishops' Conference, "Ethical and Religious Directives for Catholic Health Care Facilities," Origins 24 (1994) 450. [Back]

168 T. Stephen, "Veritatis Splendor and the Ethics of Organ Transplants," Linacre Quarterly 64 (1997) 53. [Back]

169 T. Stephen, "Veritatis Splendor and the Ethics of Organ Transplants," 53-54. [Back]

170 T. Stephen, "Veritatis Splendor and the Ethics of Organ Transplants," 55. [Back]

171 John Paul II, "Blood and Organ Donors," The Pope Speaks 30 (1985) 1. [Back]

172 John Paul II, "Blood and Organ Donors," 1. [Back]

173 John Paul II, "Organ Donations: Address of Pope John Paul II to Participants in a Congress on Renal Illness and Transplants, April 30, 1990," The Pope Speaks 35 (1990) 336-337. [Back]

174 John Paul II, "Organ Transplants: Sharing Life: Audience of Pope John Paul II to Participants in the First International Congress of the Society of Organ Sharing, June 20, 1991," The Pope Speaks 37 (1992) 12. [Back]

175 John Paul II, "Organ Transplants: Sharing Life," 13. [Back]

176 John Paul II, "Organ Transplants: Sharing Life," 14. At the same time John Paul II points out that the integrity of the person can be harmed in organ transplants. He points out that the very sphere where patients look for care can become the place where psychophysical integrity "can be harmed." Cf. John Paul II, "On Medical Ethics," Origins 10 (1980) 352. [Back]

177 John Paul II, Evangelium Vitae (Bombay: Pauline Publications, 1995) 152. [Back]

178 Conference Organized by the Council for Responsible Genetics, "Resisting Commercialization of Our Genes," (Cambridge, Mass., 26 October 1996) as quoted in Dorothy Nelkin and Lori Andrews, "Homo Economicus: Commercialization of Body Tissue in the Age of Biotechnology," 36. [Back]

179 R. C. Fox, "Regulated Commercialism of Vital Organ Donation: A Necessary? Con.," Transplantation Proceedings 25 (1993) 57. See also similar arguments in F. T. Rapaport, "Current Status and Future Prospects for Organ Procurement and Retrieval," Transplantation Proceedings 31 (1999) 1764; A. Naqvi & A. Rizvi, "Against Paid Donation," Transplantation Proceedings 33 (2001) 2628. [Back]

180 Cf. R. Fox & J. Swazey (eds.), Spare Parts: Organ Replacement in American Society (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992) 207-209. According to L. R. Kass, "in the transplanting of human organs, we have made a start on road that leads imperceptibly but surely toward a destination that one of us wants to reach...I don't want to encourage: yet I cannot moralise. How, in this matter of organs for sale, as in so much of modern life, is one to conduct one's thoughts if one wishes neither to be a crank nor to yield what is best in human life to rational analysis and the triumph of technique?" Cf. L. R. Kass, "Organs for Sale? Property, Propriety, and the Price of Progress," The Public Interest 107 (1992) 85-86. [Back]

181 R. Gillon, "Commerce and Medical Ethics," Journal of Medical Ethics 23 (1997) 67; J. Keown, "The Gift of Blood in Europe: An Ethical Defence of EC Directive 89/381," Journal of Medical Ethics 23 (1997) 99. [Back]

182 As quoted in R. Gillon, "Commerce and Medical Ethics," 67. H. V. Melachlan gives a critical view to John Keown's approach. Cf. Hugh V. Melachlan "Altruism, Blood Donation and Public Policy: A Reply to Keown," Journal of Medical Ethics 25 (1999) 532-536. [Back]

183 Cf. U. Fasting, J. Christian & S. Glending, "Children Sold for Transplants: Medical and Legal Aspects," Nursing Ethics 5 (1998) 518-526. [Back]

184 John Paul II, "Organ Transplants: Sharing Life," Audience of Pope John Paul II to participants in the first International Congress of the Society of Organ Sharing, June 20, 1991, The Pope Speaks 37 (1992) 12-14, 13; John Paul II, "Special Address on the XVII World Congress of the Transplantation Society, August 27-September 1, 2000," Transplantation Proceedings 33 (2001) 31-32, 31; Catechism of the Catholic Church (London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1994) 495. [Back]

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