"Revival" of St. Thomas' Philosophy - Yes, But Not His Erroneous "Delayed Personhood" Argument
Concerns For Beginning And End of Life Issues

Endnotes:

• 1. Note: emphases are used throughout this article in order to aid those unfamiliar with the various fields covered. Some repetition will also be necessary for readers from different backgrounds and experience.
• 2. "Decree on the Reform of Ecclesiastical Studies of Philosophy," approved by Pope Benedict XVI January 28, in Zenit, "Vatican: Priests Can't Skip Metaphysics; Calls for More Philosophy Study at Ecclesiastical Institutions", March 22, 2011, at: http://www.zenit.org/article-32095?l=english; see also Hilary White, "Philosophy 'crucial' to understanding life issues says prof as Vatican issues document", March 23, 2011, LifeSiteNews.com, at: http://www.lifesitenews.com/news/philosophy-crucial-to-understanding-life-issues-says-prof-as-vatican-issues.
• 3. Dianne Nutwell Irving, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the Nature of the Early Human Embryo (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University, 1991; Doctoral Dissertation), which addresses the science, philosophy and logic of over 23 of the current bioethics arguments for "delayed personhood". See "Appendix B" in that dissertation for a 150-page listing of direct quotes and specific references from most of Aristotle's works documenting how systematically he would have had to argue for "immediate personhood". See also my mini-summary of the 400-page Doctoral Dissertation: "Scientific and philosophical expertise: An evaluation of the arguments on 'personhood'", Linacre Quarterly (February 1993), 60:1:18-46, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_04person1.html. See also Irving, "Human Embryology and Church Teachings" (September 15, 2008), for an in-depth treatment of these related issues, addressing the accurate science, philosophy, theology, bioethics, and Church teachings with very extensive references, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/em/em_132embryologychurch1.html; also published in The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., Supplement 2009, (Detroit: Gayle), pp. 287-312, as "Embryology, Human"; see http://www.gale.cengage.com/NCE/. For extensive listing of Irving articles on these and related issues, see "Irving Library", at: http://www.lifeissues.net/section.php?topic=ir. See articles also in books co-authored with human embryologist Dr. C. Ward Kischer, The Human Development Hoax: Time To Tell The Truth! (Gold Leaf Press, 1st ed. 1995, 2nd ed. 1997), distributed now by American Life League. Dr. Kischer, who taught human embryology for over 35 years and is now an emeritus professor at the University of Arizona/Tucson, has also authored dozens of articles critical of the use of false scientific "facts" about human embryology in these debates; see a collection of his articles at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writer.php?writerID=124.
• 4. Note that many arguments for "delayed personhood" are transferred from the beginning of life issues to the end of life issues (and vice versa), e.g., see a listing of such articles in Endnote 28 below; see also Irving, "Academic fraud and conceptual transfer in bioethics: Abortion, human embryo research and psychiatric research", in Joseph W. Koterski (ed.), Life And Learning IV (Washington, D.C.: University Faculty for Life, 1995), pp. 193-215, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_10fraud1.html; also, Irving, "Politicization of science and philosophy: The 'delayed personhood ' debates and conceptual transfer", Centre d'Etudes sur la Reconnaissance de la Personne Humaine (CERPH) News Letter, Issue No. 2, December 1994, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_62goubepoliticization.html.
• 5. Gaudium et spes 1965, p. 14, par. 1; Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith 1987, Introduction 3.
• 6. E.g., see Irving, "Human Embryology and Church Teachings" (September 15, 2008), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/em/em_132embryologychurch1.html; also published in The New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed., Supplement 2009, (Detroit: Gayle), pp. 287-312, as "Embryology, Human"; see http://www.gale.cengage.com/NCE/; Irving, "A One-Act Play: 'Crippled Consciences and the Human Embryo'" (November 17, 2010), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_178one-act-play1.html; also at: http://www.issues4life.org/pdfs/aoneactplay.pdf; Irving, "The woman and the physician facing abortion: The role of correct science in the formation of conscience and the moral decision making process", presented at "The Scientific Congress, The Guadalupan Appeal: The dignity and status of the human embryo", Mexico City, October 28-29, 1999; published in Un Appello Per La Vita: The Guadalupan Appeal: Dignita E Statuto Dell'embryione Umano (Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2000), pp. 203-223; also in, Linacre Quarterly Nov./Dec. 2000), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_03facing1.html; also Irving, "The impact of international bioethics on the 'sanctity of life ethic', and the ability of Catholic ObGyn's to practice according to conscience"; presented at the international conference, "The Future of Obstetrics and Gynaecology: The Fundamental Human Right to Practice and Be Trained According to Conscience"; sponsored by the International Federation of Catholic Medical Associations (FIAMC), and MaterCare International, Rome, Italy, June 18, 2001, Proceedings of the Conference, at http://frblin.club.fr/fiamc/03events/0110gyneco/gyneco1.htm; also in, Journal: Canadian Chapter, Fellowship of Catholic Scholar (Autumn 2002), pp. 7-32, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_40bioandconscience01.html; Irving, "Abortion: Correct application of natural law theory", Linacre Quarterly (Feb. 2000), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_08natlaw.html.
  
  For a few other readings on the correct formation of conscience, see St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica, (Fathers of the English Dominican Province, trans.), Westminster, MD: Christian Classics, 1981, Ia, q. 79, a. 13, ad., p. 408; ibid., Ia IIae, q. 6, a. 8, ad., pp. 621-622; ibid., Ia IIae, q. 19, a. 5 and 6, pp. 674-676; Austine Fagothey, Right and Reason (St. Louis, MO: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1963), pp. 48-51 (note: later editions do not always follow the original text, and are not recommended); Vernon J. Bourke, Ethics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953), pp. 197-208 ; Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, Conscience and Truth, (Braintree, MA: Pope John XXIII Medical-Moral Research and Education Center, 1991), esp. pp. 4, 7-8, 11, 17-18.
• 7. Pope Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris: Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on the Restoration of Christian Philosophy (1879), at: http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_04081879_aeterni-patris_en.html. Note: all direct quotations from Pope Leo XIII used in this article are taken directly from this encyclical.
• 8. Ibid, Pope Leo XIII, Aeterni Patris: Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII on the Restoration of Christian Philosophy (1879)
• 9. Thomas Aquinas, The Division and Method of the Sciences (Mauer, ed., 1986).
• 10. See, e.g., an excellent examination of how some contemporary Thomists often fail to understand St. Thomas' epistemology properly because they don't always grasp his analogical understanding of "knowledge": Terence Allan, The Epistemology of St. Thomas Aquinas with Special Reference to Summa Theologiae la q84 (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Glasgow, Department of Philosophy, September 1997).
• 11. Etienne Gilson, Being and Some Philosophers (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1949). See also: Joseph Owens, The Doctrine of Being in the Aristotelean Metaphysics (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1957); George Klubertanz, Introduction to the Philosophy of Being (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963); Frederick Copleston, A History of Philosophy Vols. 1-9 (New York: Image Books, 1962).
• 12. See Irving, "Which ethics for the 21st century? A comparison of 'secular bioethics' and Roman Catholic medical ethics" (March 14, 1999), Linacre Quarterly (in press), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_02ethics1.html; also Irving, "Which ethics for science and public policy?", Accountability in Research 1993, 3(2-3):77-99, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_42whichethics1.html.
• 13. See Irving, "What is 'bioethics'?" (June 3, 2000), UFL Proceedings of the Conference 2000, in Joseph W. Koterski (ed.), Life and Learning X: Proceedings of the Tenth University Faculty For Life Conference (Washington, D.C.: University Faculty For Life, 2002), pp. 1-84, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_36whatisbioethics01.html.
• 14. Ibid, Irving, "What is 'bioethics'?"
• 15. The known facts of the science of human embryology are not "new". The first to study the human embryo systematically was Wilhelm His, Sr., who established the basis of reconstruction, i.e., the assembling of three-dimensional form from microscopic sections. His, who has been called the "Vesalium of human embryology," published his three-volume masterpiece Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen in 1880-85 [His, Vogel, Leipzig]. In it the human embryo was studied as a whole for the first time. A detailed Handbook of Human Embryology by Keibel and Mall appeared in 1910-12. Franklin P. Mall, who studied under His, established the Carnegie Embryological Collection in Baltimore and was the first person to stage human embryos (in 1914). Mall's collection soon became the most important repository of human embryos in the world and has ever since served as a "Bureau of Standards" for the science of human embryology. Mall's successor, George L. Streeter, laid down the basis of the currently used staging system for human embryos (1942-48), which was instituted in 1942, completed by O'Rahilly (1973) and revised by O'Rahilly and Muller (1987). (Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001); also, O'Rahilly and Muller, ibid., (3rd ed., 1994), p. 3.
  
  See the current website of the Human Development Anatomy Center: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/Education_Projects.htm. This is also the home of the Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development; see Carnegie Stage 1a,b,c at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/stage1.pdf; see all 23 stages of the early developing human embryo at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/Select_Stage_and_Lab_Manual.htm. Click into the "textbook" at the bottom left side of the screen to access more extensive details of each stage and the scientific references. See also human embryologist Dr. Raymond Gasser's new website at LSUHSC, the "Virtual Human Embryo" at: http://virtualhumanembryo.lsuhsc.edu/.
  
  See also, Irving, "The Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development: Chart of all 23 Stages, and Detailed Descriptions of Carnegie Stages 1-6" (April 22, 2006), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_123carnegiestages1.html; see also, Irving and Kischer, "Scientific Response to Criticism of the California Human Rights Amendment as 'Protecting Fertilized Eggs'" (Dec. 9, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_173californiaamendment.html, and at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_175responsecalifornia.html. See objective scientific references for asexual human reproduction in, e.g., Irving and Kischer, "Scientific Response to Criticism of the California Human Rights Amendment as Protecting Fertilized Eggs'" (Dec. 9, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_173californiaamendment.html, and at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_175responsecalifornia.html; also Irving, "When does a human being [normally] begin? 'Scientific' myths and scientific facts", International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy (Feb. 1999), 19:3/4:22-47, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_01lifebegin1.html.
• 16. To use this new website for the Terminologia Embryologica online go to FIPAT, at: http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/. Click on "Free access to published terminolgies", "Enter" to get to: http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/HomePublic.html. You are now on the Public Entry Page; Click into "Source terminologies as originally published", to get to: http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/ViewSource.html. This page lists the 3 Terminologias; To the right of the page, under "Terminologia Embryologica, from internal document (2009)", Click on e2.0: "Ontogeny" to get to: http://www.unifr.ch/ifaa/Public/EntryPage/ViewTE/TEe02.html. You are viewing "Page 8"; now use buttons at top right to move to Page 10 to arrive at description of Carnegie Stages 1-5 in Chart; The right side of chart provides the following documentation of the first 5 Stages; see especially "Single cell EMBRYO [St. 1]. See also Irving, "Exciting News - Current Up-Dated Internationally Documented Human Embryology Now Online to Public" (February 24, 2011), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_183currentupdate.html.
• 17. See Dr. Raymond Gasser's excellent "Virtual Human Embryo", housed at the Louisiana State University's Health Sciences Center, at: http://virtualhumanembryo.lsuhsc.edu/. See also, Irving, "'Virtual Human Embryo'" - Zygote Is Stage 1c, Not Stage 1a" (February 6, 2011), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_181viritualhumanembryo.html.
• 18. National Museum of Health and Medicine in Washington, D.C., at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum
• 19. See the full chart of the Carnegie Stages at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/Stages_Table.htm; individual in-depth scientific details of each Stage can be found at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/Select_Stage_and_Lab_Manual.htm. To access even more scientific details, click into the "text book" at the bottom left of each page.
• 20. Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development, Stage One, at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/stage1.pdf. See also Irving, "The Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development: Chart of all 23 Stages, and Detailed Descriptions of Carnegie Stages 1 - 6" (April 22, 2006), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_123carnegiestages1.html; Irving, "When does a human being [normally] begin? 'Scientific' myths and scientific facts", International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy (Feb. 1999), 19:3/4:22-47, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_01lifebegin1.html.
• 21. The blastomeres or cells of the intact early human embryo possess a range of "totipotency", i.e., if separated from the original embryo, the natural biological process of "regulation" could possibly revert those cells back to a new organism - a new human being, capable of producing all ("toti") of the cells, tissues and organs of an adult human being. This is actually what happens in identical (monozygotic) "twinning", both in vivo and in vitro. Two-thirds of identical twinning takes place by means of "blastomere separation"; one-third of identical twinning takes place by means of "blastocyst splitting". Both forms of "twinning" have been used for decades in IVF and other ART clinics as "infertility treatments". When those twins that are reproduced in vitro are ready, they are implanted into the woman's uterus. Since "twinning" is one of many different kinds of cloning, it would seem logical to conclude that "reproductive cloning" has also been taking place for decades. Some twins even form after the blastocyst stage up to about 3 months post-fertilization (e.g., Siamese twins, and fetus-in-fetu twins). See Stages Two, Three and Four of the Carnegie Stages, at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/Select_Stage_and_Lab_Manual.htm. For a more detailed scientific explanation of "twinning", see Irving, "Playing God by manipulating man: Facts and frauds of human cloning" (October 4, 2003), presented twice at the Missouri Catholic Conference Annual Assembly Workshop, Jefferson City, MO, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_22manipulatingman1.html. See also Irving, "Framing the Debates on Human Cloning and Human Embryonic Stem Cells: Pluripotent vs. TOTIPOTENT" (July 23, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_100debatecloning1.html
• 22. See Irving, "'Virtual Human Embryo'" - Zygote Is Stage 1c, Not Stage 1a" (Feb. 6, 2011), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_181viritualhumanembryo.html; Irving and Kischer , "Responses to Dr. Condic's 'Science' in National Catholic Register Interview" (January 6, 2010), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_172responsetocondic.html; Irving, "Condic's 'Pre-Zygote' Error in 'When Does Human Life Begin?'" (November 18, 2008), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_134maureencondic1.html
• 23. Carnegie Stages of Early Human Embryonic Development, Stage One, at: http://nmhm.washingtondc.museum/collections/hdac/stage1.pdf.
• 24. Irving and Kischer, "Scientific Response to Criticism of the California Human Rights Amendment as 'Protecting Fertilized Eggs'" (Dec. 9, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_173californiaamendment.html, and http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_175responsecalifornia.html.
• 25. Irving, "University Faculty for Life: Submission of Concern to the British House of Lords Re the 'Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001'"; written as UFL Board Member on behalf of UFL; submitted to Tony Rawsthorne, Select Committee, House of Lords, London (June 1, 2001), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_61ufl_greatbritain1.html; http://www.parliament.the-stationeryoffice.co.uk/pa/ld200102/ldselect/ldstem/83/8313.htm; [acknowledgment] http://www.uffl.org/irving/irvlords.htm.
• 26. The term "pre-embryo" was concocted out of thin air by Catholic Jesuit theologian Richard McCormick and Catholic frog embryologist Clifford Grobstein; see Richard McCormick, "Who or what is the 'preembryo'?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal (1991), 1:1:3-15. In this paper McCormick draws heavily on the work of Grobstein, as well as from "an unpublished study" of a research group of the Catholic Health Association entitled "The Status and Use of the Human Preembryo", (p. 14). See also Clifford Grobstein, "The early development of human embryos", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1985), 10:213-236; also Grobstein, Science and the Unborn (New York: Basic Books, 1988).
  
  The list of writers, both Catholic and secular, as well as Catholic and secular professional academic, legal, medical and scientific organizations, who espoused the false term "pre-embryo" early on is legion by now, and impossible to record here. The disastrous influence of the McCormick/Grobstein term "pre-embryo" was (and still is) widespread even among Catholic scholars. For example, in addition to the early bioethics works of McCormick and Grobstein, see acceptance of the term "pre-embryo" in the following Catholic scholars as of even 10 years ago: Andre E. Hellegers, "Fetal Development," in Thomas A. Mappes and Jane S. Zembatty (eds.), Biomedical Ethics, (New York: Macmillan, 1981); Hellegers, "Fetal Development", Theological Studies (1970), 31:3-9; Charles E. Curran, "Abortion: Contemporary Debate in Philosophical and Religious Ethics", in W. T. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics 1 (London: The Free Press, 1978), pp. 17-26; Kevin Wildes, "Book Review: Human Life: Its Beginning and Development" (L'Harmattan, Paris: International Federation of Catholic Universities, 1988); Carlos Bedate and Robert Cefalo, "The Zygote: To Be or Not Be a Person", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989), 14:6:641; Robert C. Cefalo, "Book Review: Embryo Experimentation, Peter Singer et al (eds.), 'Eggs, Embryos and Ethics'", Hastings Center Report (1991), 21:5:41; Mario Moussa and Thomas A. Shannon, "The Search for the New Pineal Gland: Brain Life and Personhood", The Hastings Center Report (1992), 22:3:30-37; Carol Tauer, The Moral Status of the Prenatal Human (Doctoral Dissertation in Philosophy; Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C., 1981) (Sister Tauer's dissertation mentor was Richard McCormick; she later went on to become the ethics co-chair of the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel 1994); C. Tauer, "The Tradition of Probabilism and the Moral Status of the Early Embryo", in Patricia B. Jung and Thomas A. Shannon, Abortion and Catholicism (New York: Crossroad, 1988), pp. 54-84; Lisa S. Cahill, "Abortion, Autonomy, and Community", in Jung and Shannon, Abortion and Catholicism (1988), pp. 85-98; Joseph F. Donceel, "A Liberal Catholic's View", in Jung and Shannon, Abortion and Catholicism (1988), pp. 48-53; H. Tristram Engelhardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 111; William A. Wallace, "Nature and Human Nature as the Norm in Medical Ethics", in Edmund D. Pellegrino, John P. Langan and John Collins Harvey (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), pp. 23-53; Norman Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 298; Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform Moles and Teratomas Confirm the Human Identity of the Preimplantation Embryo", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1990), 15:627-635; Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical Accounts of the Zygote as a Person and the Veto Power of Facts", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989), 14:647-653; Bole, "Zygotes, Souls, Substances, and Persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1990), 15:637-652. The term "pre-embryo" even somehow made its way into the Vatican encyclical, Donum vitae (Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith) (St. Paul Books & Media, 1987), footnote p. 4. However, the term was later rejected by The Third Plenary Assembly of the Pontifical Academy for Life held in Vatican City, 14-16 February, 1997, at: http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_academies/acdlife/documents/rc_pa_acdlife_doc_16021997_final-doc_en.html.
  
  In addition to the Catholic scholars who espoused the term "pre-embryo" as noted above, a partial list of secular bioethics writers early on who also accepted the use of the term "pre-embryo" in these debates includes Paul Ramsey, "Reference Points in Deciding About Abortion" in J.T. Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970), pp. 60-100, esp. p. 75. Ramsey also had qualms about the "moral status" of the early embryo, accepting the McCormick/Grobstein "pre-embryo", and therefore also reluctantly sanctioned fetal research. See Paul Ramsey's testimony in The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research; Report and Recommendations; Research on the Fetus; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1975, pp. 35-36. See also: John Robertson, "Extracorporeal Embryos and the Abortion Debate", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy (1986), 2;53;53-70; Robertson, "Symbolic Issues in Embryo Research", The Hastings Center Report (1995, Jan./Feb.), 37-38; Robertson, "The Case of the Switched Embryos", The Hastings Center Report (1995), 25:6:13-24; Howard W. Jones, "And Just What is a Preembryo?", Fertility and Sterility 52:189-91; Jones and C. Schroder, "The Process of Human Fertilization: Implications for Moral Status", Fertility and Sterility (August 1987), 48:2:192; Michael Tooley, "Abortion and Infanticide", in The Rights and Wrongs of Abortion, M. Cohen et al (eds.) (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 59 and 64; Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse, "The Ethics of Embryo Research", Law, Medicine and Health Care (1987),14:13-14; Kuhse and Singer, "For Sometimes Letting - and Helping - Die", Law, Medicine and Health Care (1986), 3:40:149-153; Kuhse and Singer, Should The Baby Live? The Problem of Handicapped Infants (Oxford University Press, 1985), p.138; Singer, "Taking Life: Abortion", in Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 122-123; Peter Singer, Helga Kuhse, Stephen Buckle, Karen Dawson, Pascal Kasimba (eds.), Embryo Experimentation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); R.M. Hare, "When Does Potentiality Count? A Comment on Lockwood," Bioethics (1988), 2:3:214; Michael Lockwood, "When Does Life Begin?", in Michael Lockwood (ed.), Moral Dilemma's in Modern Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 10; Hans-Martin Sass, "Brain Life and Brain Death: A Proposal for Normative Agreement," Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989), 14:45-59; Michael Lockwood, "Warnock Versus Powell (and Harradine): When Does Potentiality Count?" Bioethics (1988), 2:3:187 213.
• 27. Examples of professional organizations that adopt the term "pre-embryo": see Irving, "American Medical Association's "Narrow Definitions", Legal "Re-definitions" ... and Reproductive Cloning" (October 9, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_170ama1.html. See also: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, "Ethics", in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2nd ed., No. 97 (2004), pp. 957, 958; erroneously defines "preembryo" as "product of fertilization before 14 days and arrival of primitive streak". American Fertility Society, Ethics Committee, "Ethical Considerations of the New Reproductive Technologies," Fertility and Sterility 46, Supplement 1 (September1986): 27S, (name changed to American Society of Reproductive Medicine in 1990s; still publish their scientific journal, Fertility and Sterility; chairs of ethics committees included Richard McCormick, S.J. and Clifford Grobstein). American Medical Association, Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, CEJA Report 1-I-94, "Pre-Embryo Splitting" (1994), available from http://www.ama-assn.org/apps/pf_new/pf_online?f_n=browse&doc=policyfiles/HnE/E-2.145.HTM; endorses "pre-embryo splittting" as infertility treatment. American Society of Reproductive Medicine, Ethics Committee Report, "Human Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer," Fertility and Sterility 74, no. 5 (November 2000): 873-876, available from http://www.asrm.org/Media/Ethics/cloning.pdf. American Society for Reproductive Medicine, Ethics Committee, "Embryo Splitting for Infertility Treatment," Fertility and Sterility 82, Supplement 1 (September 2004): S256-7, available from PubMed #15363746. American Society of Reproductive Medicine, "Chapter 16: Experimentation on the Preembryo," Fertility and Sterility 87, no. 4, Supplement 1 (April 2007): S52-S58. Gerontology Research Group, GRG Editorial: "Let's Defuse the Rhetoric by Sharpening Our Vocabulary" (December 2001), available from http://www.grg.org/breakingnews2001.htm. The Twins Foundation, "New Ways to Produce Identical Twins-A Continuing Controversy" Research Update 9, no. 1 (1994), available from http://twinsfoundation.com/researchupdate/ru-v9n1-1994.htm; also, see details of this article that discusses the use of cloning by "twinning" in infertility treatments in: Dianne N. Irving, "Legally Valid Informed Consent: Individual Testimony Before the New Jersey State Senate Health and Human Services Committee on Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research, Ethical and Public Policy Considerations", New Jersey State Senate Committee on Health And Human Services, Trenton, New Jersey (Novermber 4, 2002), Footnote 19, available from http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_14legalconsent1.html; also in Dianne N. Irving, "Framing the Debates on Human Cloning and Human Embryonic Stem Cells: Pluripotent vs. Totipotent" (July 23, 2005), pp. 27-28, available from http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_100debatecloning1.html.
  
  A few examples of U.S. and state government adoption of the term "pre-embryo": California Advisory Committee, Cloning Californians: Report of the California Advisory Committee on Human Cloning (Sacramento, Calif. January 11, 2002); Chaired by Irving Weissman, terms "preembryo" and "ball of cells" to refer to the early embryo used throughout report, available at http://scbe.stanford.edu/conference/cloning_cali.pdf. Food and Drug Administration, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, Workshop on Evidence Based Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) (Washington, D.C. September 18, 2002), available at http://www.fda.gov/cber/minutes/art091802.pdf. Institute of Medicine and National Research Council, Committee on the Basic Science Foundations of Medically Assisted Conception, Report of a Study and Workshop Papers, "Medically Assisted Conception: An Agenda for Research," (1989), available at http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=1433. National Academy of Sciences, Commission on Life Sciences, "Comparison of Stem Cell Production With Reproductive Cloning," in Stem Cells and the Future of Regenerative Medicine, available at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309076307/html/11.html#pagetop. National Academy of Sciences, Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, Scientific and Medical Aspects of Human Reproductive Cloning: How Is Reproductive Cloning Done?, available at http://books.nap.edu/books/0309076374/html/25.html. National Bioethics Advisory Commission, Cloning Human Beings: Report and Recommendations of the National Bioethics Advisory Commission (Rockville, Md. June 1997), p. 3. National Institutes of Health, Human Embryo Research Panel Meetings (Washington, D.C. 1994), using term "pre-embryo" in: February 2 meeting, pp. 27, 31, 50-80, 85-87, 104-106; February 3, 1994 meeting, pp. 6-55; April 11 meeting, pp. 23-41, 9-22. National Institutes of Health, Office of Science Policy Analysis, Cloning: Present Uses and Promises (Washington, D.C. January 29, 1998), p. 3; available at http://ospp.od.nih.gov/policy/cloning.asp. National Institutes of Health, Office of Science Policy Analysis, Cloning: Present Uses and Promises (Washington, D.C. April 27, 1998), available at http://ospp.od.nih.gov/policy/cloning.asp. National Science Foundation and U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science, edited by Mihail C. Roco and William Sims Bainbridge (Washington, D.C., June 2002), available at http://wtec.org/ConvergingTechnologies/1/NBIC_report.pdf. U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Ethics Advisory Board, Report and Conclusions: HEW Support of Research Involving Human In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer, Federal Register 44 (Washington, D.C. 1979): 35033-35058. Ethics Advisory Board (1979) Report and Conclusions: HEW Support of Research Involving Human In Vitro Fertilization and Embryo Transfer, Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare, p. 101.
  
  See also the use of the term "pre-embryo" in many international documents (a small sample): British House of Lords, The Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001, no. 188, summary available from http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2001/20010188.htm, (now out of print but can order photocopies; Dame Mary Warnock, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilization and Embryology, (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1984), pp. 27 and 63; Parliament of Canada, Bill C-13: Assisted Human Reproduction Act (2003), at: http://www2.parl.gc.ca/Sites/LOP/LegislativeSummaries/Bills_ls.asp?lang=E&Parl=37&Ses=2&ls=C13&source=Bills_House_Government; Canadian Institutes of Health Research Working Group on Stem Cell Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, Human Stem Cell Research Recommendations (2001); Commonwealth of Australia, Select Senate Committee on the Human Embryo Experimentation Bill, (Canberra, Australia: Official Hansard Report, Commonwealth Government Printer, 1986); Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, On the Use of Human Embryos and Foetuses for Diagnostic, Therapeutic, Scientific, Industrial and Commercial Purposes, Recommendation 1046, 1986; and On the Use of Human Embryos and Foetuses in Scientific Research, Recommendation 1000, 1989; New Zealand Parliament, Human Assisted Reproductive Technology Bill (1996); Supplementary Order Paper 2003, no. 80, May 14, 2003, Bills Digest No. 972, available from http://www.parliament.nz/NR/rdonlyres/1FA29ADF-DB31-4186-AA33-AE523F9D2799/49206/972HumanAssistedReproduction3.pdf.
• 28. For the broadened use of the term "pre-embryo" early on to justify ending life (in addition to ending the lives of early embryos), see, e.g.: Richard A. McCormick, S.J., "To Save or Let Die," Journal of the American Medical Association (1974), 229:172-176. See also, John C. Fletcher, "Abortion, Euthanasia and Care of the Defective Newborn", New England Journal of Medicine (1975); 292:75-79; H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., "Ethical Issues in Aiding the Death of Young Children," in Martin Kohl (ed.), Beneficent Euthanasia (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1975), pp. 180-192; John Robertson and Norman Fost, "Passive Euthanasia of Defective Newborn Infants," Journal of Pediatrics 88 (1976), 88:883-192; John Robertson, "Involuntary Euthanasia of Defective Newborns: A Legal Analysis," Stanford Law Review (1975), 27:213-269; Albert R. Jonsen and Michael J. Garland (eds.), Ethics of Newborn Intensive Care (Berkeley: Institute for Government Studies, 1976), pp. 33 and 190; Albert Jonsen, William Tooley, Roderick Phibbs, and Michael Garland, "Critical Issues in Newborn Intensive Care: A Conference Report and Policy Proposal," Pediatrics (1975), 55:756-768; Barbara Culliton, "Intensive Care for Newborns: Are There Times to Pull the Plug?", Science (1975), 188:133-134; Paul Ramsey, "An Ingathering of Other Reasons for Neonatal Infanticide," in Ethics at the Edges of Life: Medical and Legal Intersections (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), pp., 228-267, 250; Darrel W. Amundsen, "Medicine and the Birth of Defective Children: Approaches of the Ancient World," in Richard M. McMillan, H. Tristram Engelhardt, Jr., and Stuart F. Spicker (eds.), Euthanasia and the Newborn: Conflicts Regarding Saving Lives (Dordrecht/Boston: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1987), pp. 3-22; Maria W. Piers, Infanticide (New York: Norton, 1978); Clement A. Smith, "Neonatal Medicine and Quality of Life: An Historical Perspective", in Jonsen and Garland (eds.), Ethics of Newborn Intensive Care, p. 33; Alexander Schaffere, Diseases of the Newborn (Philadelphia: Saunders, 1960); William Silverman, "The Lesson of Retrolental Fibroplasia," Scientific American (1977), 236:100-107; Paul A. Freund, "Mongoloids and 'Mercy Killing'" in Reiser et al, Ethics in Medicine, pp. 536-538; James M. Gustafson, "Mongolism, Parental Desires and the Right to Live," Perspectives in Biology and Medicine (1973), 16:4:529-557; Raymond S. Duff and A.G.M. Campbell, "Moral and Ethical Dilemmas in the Special-Care Nursery," New England Journal of Medicine (1973), 289:890-984; President's Commission on Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral Research, Deciding to "Forego Life-Sustaining Treatment: A Report on the Ethical and Legal Issues in Treatment Decisions (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), Chapter 6; Cindy Bouillon-Jensen, "Infanticide,", in Warren T. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics (2nd ed.) (New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1995), pp. 1200-1205; Martin S. Pernick, The Black Stork: Eugenics and the Death of "Defective" Babies in American Medicine and Motion Pictures (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
• 29. A "pre-embryo substitute" is a false scientific term used to accomplish the same thing as the "pre-embryo" but without using the term "pre-embryo" itself - i.e., to claim that either there is no human being present immediately at all, or there is a human being but no human person present immediately. Both terms ("pre-embryo" and "pre-embryo substitute") are used to argue for "delayed humanhood" and/or "delayed personhood" of some sort. See Irving, "Pre-embryos" and "Pre-embryo substitutes": Safeguarding human life "from the very beginning"? (June 8, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_164safeguardinglife.html; Irving, "What Human Embryo? Funniest Mental Gymnastics from Medicine and Research" (Oct. 14, 2004), Presented after the White Mass, sponsored by The Guild of Saint Luke, The Catholics Physicians of The Archdiocese of Boston at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_82whathumanembryo1.html.
  
  For a detailed analysis and refutation of the following "pre-embryo substitutes" see Irving, "Scientific and philosophical expertise: An evaluation of the arguments on 'personhood'", Linacre Quarterly (February 1993), 60:1:18-46, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_04person1.html. A partial list of "pre-embryo substitutes" that claim a "delay" between when a human being begins to exist, and when a human person begins to exist - or that they don't exist at all: A pre-embryo vs. an embryo; a "pre-zygote" vs. a "zygote; a being on the way vs. an already existing one; a seed vs. an organism; a phase sortal vs. a substance sortal; information content there vs. information capacity there; a biological individual vs. an ontological individual; a transient nature vs. a stable human nature; a biologically integrated whole vs. a psychologically integrated whole; a biological life only vs. a personal life; an unconscious biological life vs. a conscious personal life; a lower-brain life vs. a cortical-brain life"; no one home vs. some one home; a zoe vs. a bios; a possible or potential human being vs. an actual human being; a possible or potential person vs. an actual human person; an object vs. a subject; an evolving member of the human species vs. an actual member of the human species; no rational attributes or sentience there vs. rational attributes or sentience there; no human cognition vs. human cognition, a ball of cells vs. an organism. Politicized terms such as "spare" or "left-over" embryos or "products of conception" are often used. Further rhetoric includes the false distinction between therapeutic and reproductive cloning, the deconstruction of therapeutic cloning to mean stem cell research, and the deconstruction of totipotent to mean pluripotent. Even the centuries-old honored term "conception" itself has now been erroneously redefined in professional organizations and in many state laws as as "beginning at implantation rather than at fertilization".
• 30. See Irving, "'New age' embryology text books: 'Pre-embryo', 'pregnancy' and abortion counseling: Implications for fetal research", Linacre Quarterly (May 1994), 61(2):42-62, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_50newagetextbook1.html. Note: The 5th ed. of this text by Moore and Persaud was admitted by authors to have serious systematic scientific errors, including extensive use of the false term "pre-embryo". Moore continues, however, to use the Islamic term "nutfah" as a "pre-embryo substitute" in another of his human embryology textbooks, with co-author Azzindani, Abdul Majeed A., The Developing Human. Clinically Oriented Embryology with ISLAMIC ADDITIONS [emphasis in original], 3rd Ed., Dar Al-Qiblah and W.B. Saunders. [This textbook is still available on-line at: http://www.onlineislamicstore.com/b6147.html. Depending on which "interpretation" of the Qur'an or Hadith, the term "nutfah" can mean that there is no human being present until about 3 weeks or until the beginning of the fetal period at 3 months. It is only at 3 months that there can be a "person" present. Also see Moore's suggestion to replace the Carnegie Stages: "It is proposed that a new system of classification could be developed using the terms mentioned in the Qur'an and Sunnah ...", in "This is the Truth," pp. 10-11; see video, "The Video Clips of the Scientists' Comments on the Quran; Professor Keith L. Moore, Comment 2," available from http://www.islam-guide.com/truth.htm; quoted in "The Quran on Human Embryonic Development," available from http://www.islam-guide.com/frm-ch1-1-a.htm. For some trenchant rebuttals of this specific "modern embryology", see: Dr. Yusuf Needham and Dr. Butrus Needbeer, "Qur'anic Embryology", at: http://www.geocities.com/freethoughtmecca/embryo.html; also, "The Qur'an and Modern Science: Extracts from the video 'The Truth', http://www.islam101.com/science/quran_sc_tv.html; also, at http://www.scotland.com/forums/showthread.php3?threadid=18165. Moore's presentations at one of these Islamic conferences are also available at: "Embryology Prof. Keith L. Moore", Part 1, at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tx434UE3SYw; "Embryology Prof. Keith L .Moore", Part 2, at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fKGurZJO3hM&feature=related; see contra, "Science And The Qur'an: The Truth" (a harsh analysis of the bad science in the Koran and Bucaillism), at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8A9DEeglXI&feature=video_response.
• 31. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001), p. 88.
• 32. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1994), p. 55.
• 33. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001), p. 19.
• 34. See Irving, "Neither, Nor: Bryne's and Willke's Pseudo-Battle Over Human Embryonic Stem Cells" (June 19, 2008), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_129bryneandwillke.html; also Irving, "Problems with the phrase, 'from conception/fertilization to natural death'" (Aug. 8, 2007), at: www.lifeissues.net/writers/irvi/irvi_67coloradoinitiative.html.
• 35. Irving, "University Faculty for Life: Submission of Concern to the Canadian CIHR Re the 'Human Stem Cell Research Recommendations 2001'"; written as UFL Board Member on behalf of UFL; submitted to Dr. Alan Bernstein, President, Canadian Institutes of Health Research Working Group on Stem Cell Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (June 3, 2001), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_60canadiancihrrecomm1.html; see also Irving, "Analysis: Canadian Bill C-13: Commentators in Denial, Bill C-13" (Dec 17, 2001), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_17commentatorsindenial.html; also Irving, "Analysis: Requested testimony on Canadian Bill C-13 ('Assisted Human Reproduction Act')", House of Commons (December 9, 2002), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_16canadianbill.html; also Irving, "Second Thoughts About the Cloning 'Victory' at the U.N. and Passing a U.S. 'Ban'; Definitions, Definitions, Definitions" (March 9, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_88secondthoughts.html
• 36. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001), p. 16.
• 37. William Hurlbut, "From Biology to Biography," The New Atlantis: A Journal of Technology and Society, Number 3, Fall 2003, pp. 47-66, at: http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/from-biology-to-biography. William Hurlbut, M.D., is a physician, Consulting Professor at Stanford University and a member of the President's Council on Bioethics. This article is adapted from an essay in the forthcoming book, What is a Person?: An Introduction, edited by David Blankenhorn, Iain T. Benson, and Melanie Susan O'Hara. See also, Christian Smith, What Is a Person?: Rethinking Humanity, Social Life, and the Moral Good from the Person Up (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010). Smith is William R. Kenan, Jr. Professor of Sociology at the University of Notre Dame, Director of the Center for Social Research; also author of Resisting Reagan: The U.S. Central American Peace Movement, The Emergence of Liberation Theology: Radical Religion and Social Movement theory; and Evangelicalism: Embattled and Thriving.
• 38. But see Irving and Kischer, "Responses to Dr. Condic's 'Science' in National Catholic Register Interview" (January 6, 2010), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_172responsetocondic.html; Irving, "Ethical and Scientific Concerns About Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Research -- Yamanaka and Thomson" (June 1, 2008), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_127concerns.html; Irving, "Condic's 'Pre-Zygote' Error in 'When Does Human Life Begin?'" (November 18, 2008), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_134maureencondic1.html; Irving, "Pluripotent' Stem Cell (iPS) Research is Not the Usual 'Adult' Stem Cell Research" (April 8, 2009), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_138ips_notadultstemcell.html; Irving, "Comment on iPS Research: 'The Moral Frontiers of Stem Cell Research'" (December 6, 2010), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_179moralfrontiers.html; Irving, "Comments on 'Adult stem cells said to 'forget' retooling; Embryonic alternative [iPS stem cell research] suffers setback'" (July 21, 2010, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irvi/irvi_69ipsstemcell.html.
• 39 Tom Strachan and Andrew P. Read, Human Molecular Genetics 2 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1999), pp. 508-509. See also Irving, "Framing the Debates on Human Cloning and Human Embryonic Stem Cells: Pluripotent vs. TOTIPOTENT" (July 23, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_100debatecloning1.html; also, Irving, "University Faculty for Life: Letter of Concern to Sen. Brownback and Congressman Weldon Re the 'Human Cloning Bill 2001'"; written as UFL Board Member on behalf of UFL; submitted to Sen. Brownback and Congr. Weldon, U.S. Congress, Washington, D.C. (May 27, 2001), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_52weldonbrownback1.html; also Irving, "Analysis of Legislative and Regulatory Chaos in the U.S.: Asexual Human Reproduction and Genetic Engineering" (Oct. 20, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_81chaosasexgen1.html.
• 40. See Irving, "Playing God by manipulating man: Facts and frauds of human cloning" (October 4, 2003), presented twice at the Missouri Catholic Conference Annual Assembly Workshop, Jefferson City, MO, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_22manipulatingman1.html; Irving, "Playing God ...; Appendix Church teachings and the 'delayed personhood' ruse" (Oct. 4, 2003), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_74churchteaching1.html; Irving, "Open Letter to U.S. Catholic Church Hierarchy on Human Cloning and Human Embryonic Stem Cell Research" (February 20, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_46openletter.html.
• 41. See, e.g., Irving, "Plato's Royal Lies": State Authorized Eugenics, Communism, Utilitarianism, Euthanasia, Physician Assisted Suicide, "Mother Earth" Myth, Day Care Nurseries, Women in the Military, and Population Control" (August 3, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_69plato1.html; Irving, "Historic roots of human genetic engineering: REASON, Duke, and parahuman reproduction - 1972" (July 11, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irvi/irvi_34winstonduke.html; Irving, "Gnosticism, the Heretical Gnostic Writings, and 'Judas'" (April 9, 2006), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_121gnosticism1.html; Irving, "'Gnostic Soup'": Pagan fertility gods, IVF, Hollywood, cloning/genetic engineering, bioethics, transhumanism, libertarians, drugs, eugenics, etc." (Nov. 7, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_108gnosticsoup.html.
• 42. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica [ST] 1a, q. 85, a. 2.
• 43. See, e.g., Aristotle , De Anima III, 9. See St. Thomas, ST 1a, qq. 84-85; also, De Virtutibus in Communi, q. 19 a. 1c.; also, Summa Contra Gentiles [SG], II 77.
• 44. Aristotle, in De Coelo, 1.5.271b, 9-10.
• 45. For St. Thomas' epistemology, and how we come to know material reality in more detail, see his ST 1a, qq. 84-89.
• 46. Aristotle, in De Coelo, 1,2; 3.3.5; also in De Partibus Animallum, 2.2. Actually, this was the commonly accepted belief into the 17th century, and essentially the basis of "alchemy", eventually rejected, beginning with 17th century chemists like Robert Boyle.
• 47. Aristotle, Physica 2.1.193b, 3-5, (McKeon, 1941), p. 238.
• 48. Ibid., 2.2.194b, 12-14, p. 240; see also 2.2.193b, 33-37, p. 239.
• 49. See Klubertanz (1963), p. 100; also Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia, q. 76, a. 7.
• 50. Aristotle, De Anima 1.5.411b, 14-18, (McKeon, 1941), p. 554.
• 51. Aristotle, De Anima, 1.5.411b, 24-28, (McKeon, 1941), p. 554.
• 52. Aristotle, De Anima (McKeon, 1941): 1.4.408b, 13-15, p. 548; also, 1.4.488b, 25-26, p. 548. For Aquinas see ST Ia, q. 75, a. 2, ad. 2, p. 365; also see Frederick Wilhelmsen, Man's Knowledge of Reality (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1956), pp. 78-79 and 103-105.
• 53. Aristotle, Metaphysica, 3.2.997b18-998a10, (McKeon, 1941), p. 721; see also 11.1.1059a34-1059b14. pp. 850-851; for Aquinas, see ST, Ia, q. 45, a. 4, ad. 2, p. 235.
• 54. Aristotle, Metaphysica VI, 1029 a.20, Ross (trans.), in Klubertanz, Philosophy of Being (1963), p. 115 (note 27); for Aquinas see ST Ia, q. 6, a. 1, ad. 3, p. 330; also Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics, Book VIII, lect. 1 (ed. Cathala, No. 1686), in Klubertanz (1963), p. 100, and 124-125.
• 55. Ibid, Klubertanz (1963), p. 100.
• 56. Thomas Aquinas, ST Ia, .q. 45, a. 4, ad. 1 and 2, p. 235; also, Ia, q. 6, a. 1, ad. 3, p. 330; also Ia, q. 65, a. 3, ad.., p. 327; also Ia, q. 65, a. 4, ad., p. 327; also Ia, q. 65, ad, p. 328-329; also, Ia, q. 76, a. 7, ad., p. 381
• 57. Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia, q. 76, ,a. 7. For his extensive teachings on "man", see ST 1a, qq. 75-102.
• 58. E.g., see William A. Wallace, "Nature and human nature as the norm in medical ethics:, in Edmund D. Pellegrino, John P. Langan and John Collins Harvey (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), pp. 23-53.
• 59. Aristotle, Categories, in Ross (1985), p. 20-21; Thomas Aquinas, The Division and Method of the Sciences (Mauer, ed., 1986), pp. 37-38.
• 60. See, e.g.. Thomas Aquinas ST 1a, q. 84, a. 5.
• 61. Thomas Aquinas, ST Ia, q. 29, a. 1, ad 5.
• 62. Thomas Aquinas, ST, Ia, .q. 29, a. 1, ad. 2, 3, 5, p. 156; ibid, a. 2, ad., p. 157; also ST IIIa, q. 19, a. 1, ad. 4.; see also, Kevin Doran, "Person-a key concept for ethics", Linacre Quarterly 56(4), 1989, p. 39.
• 63. Thomas Aquinas, On being and Essence, Armand Maurer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1983), Chap. 2; also The Division and Method of the Sciences, Armand Mauer (trans.), (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1986), pp. 14, 29, 39, 40.
• 64. Thomas Aquinas, ST IIIa, q. 19, a. 1, ad. 4; see also Kevin Doran (1989), p. 39.
• 65. Thomas Aquinas, ST Ia, q. 75, a. 4, ad., p. 366.
• 66. See Irving, "What is 'bioethics'?" (June 3, 2000), UFL Proceedings of the Conference 2000, in Joseph W. Koterski (ed.), Life and Learning X: Proceedings of the Tenth University Faculty For Life Conference (Washington, D.C.: University Faculty For Life, 2002), pp. 1-84, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_36whatisbioethics01.html.
• 67. See for example, Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the human identity of the preimplantation embryo", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15, 1990, 630; Norman Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 298; William A. Wallace, "Nature and human nature as the norm in medical ethics:, in Edmund D. Pellegrino, John P. Langan and John Collins Harvey (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), 23-53; Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is the preembryo?", paper presented at the Andre E. Hellegers Lecture (Washington, D.C. Georgetown University: May 17, 1990) (pre-publication manuscript); see also, McCormick, "Who or what is the Preembryo?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1(1), 1991, p. 13; Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical accounts of the zygote as a person and the veto power of facts", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 14, 1989: 647-653; also, "Zygotes, souls, substances, and persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 15, 1990: 637-652.
• 68. Aristotle, De Anima, 1.5.411b, 14-18, (McKeon, 1941), p. 554; also, 1.5.411b, 24-28, p. 554; for Aquinas, see notes supra.
• 69. As the Thomist Klubertanz has expressed it, the human soul, being a form, cannot be divided. The ovum and sperm unite, "thus giving rise to a single cell with the material disposition required for the presence of a soul", in Klubertanz, The Philosophy of Nature, 1953, p. 312. Thus in human sexual reproduction, the matter is "appropriately organized" to receive the whole soul at the beginning of the process of fertilization. Also see B. Ashley and K. O'Rourke, Ethics of Health Care: An Introductory Textbook (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 1994), pp. 149-151.
• 70. See Irving, "On Singer's, 'The Sanctity of Life: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow'" (Sept. 27, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_105singerandlife.html; also Irving, "Reading the Singer on 'bestiality'", (Feb. 8, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_23singerglobalethics.html. For a detailed analysis of 23 similar bioethics arguments for "personhood", see Irving, "Scientific and philosophical expertise: An evaluation of the arguments on 'personhood'", Linacre Quarterly (February 1993), 60:1:18-46, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_04person1.html.
• 71. Rene Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy, in John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff and Dugald Murdoch (trans.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (New York: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1984), 2nd Meditation, pp. 12ff.
• 72. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, A.D. Woozley (ed.) (London: Fontana/Collins, 1964), Book Two, Ch. XXXI, pp. 211-12.
• 73. H.T. Engelhardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 111.
• 74. Michael Tooley, "Abortion and infanticide", in Marshall Cohen et al (ed.), The Rights and Wrongs of Abortions, (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 59, 64.
• 75. Helga Kuhse and Peter Singer, "For sometimes letting - and helping - die", Law, Medicine and Health Care 3(4), 1986, pp. 149-153; also Kuhse and Singer, Should the Baby Live? The Problem of Handicapped Infants (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 138; Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse, "The ethics of embryo research", Law, Medicine and Health Care 14(13-14), 1987. For one reaction, see Gavin J. Fairbairn, "Kuhse, Singer and slippery slopes", Journal of Medical Ethics 14 (1988), p. 134.
• 76. Peter Singer, "Taking life: abortion", in Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 118.
• 77. Mark Mercer, "A Fetus is not a Person", The Ottawa Citizen, May 3, 2010, at: http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/fetus+person/2979302/story.html; see Irving response, "Mercer's Obsolute Bioethics Plea: 'A fetus is not a person'", May 4, 2010, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_174mercerplea.html.
• 78. See Irving, "On Singer's, 'The Sanctity of Life: Here Today, Gone Tomorrow'" (Sept. 27, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_105singerandlife.html; also Irving, "Reading the Singer on 'bestiality'", (Feb. 8, 2004), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_23singerglobalethics.html. For a detailed analysis of 23 similar bioethics arguments for "personhood", see Irving, "Scientific and philosophical expertise: An evaluation of the arguments on 'personhood'", Linacre Quarterly (February 1993), 60:1:18-46, at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_04person1.html.
• 79. Peter Singer, "Taking life: abortion" (1981), p. 118.
• 80. Richard G. Frey, The ethics of the search for benefits: Animal experimentation in medicine", in Raanan Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994), pp. 1067-1075. See also: Irving, "The U.S. Belmont Report Already Requires All Citizens To Take Part in Research 'For the Greater Good'" (April 18, 2005), at: http://www.lifeissues.net/writers/irv/irv_90belmontreport1.html.
  
  For some arguments counter Frey, see: Adil E. Shamoo and D.N. Irving, chapter on "The ethics of research on the mentally disabled", in D.C. Thomasma and J. Monagle (eds.), Health Care Ethics: Critical Issues for the 21st Century, 1997; Shamoo, Irving and Langenberg, "Comparison of U.S. and non-U.S. studies from psychiatric literature on schizophrenia", Cambridge Quarterly on Health Care Ethics 1997; J. Katz, "Ethics in neurobiological research with human subjects", Accountability in Research (1996), 4:277-283; Shamoo and T.J. Keay, "Ethical concerns about relapse studies", Cambridge Quarterly on Health Care Ethics (1996), 5:373-386; D.N. Irving, "Background paper: Washouts/relapses in neurological research using human subjects", in Shamoo (ed.), Proceedings of the First Baltimore Conference on Ethics: Ethics in Neurobiological Research With Human Subjects (New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1996); D.N. Irving, "Psychiatric research: Reality check", The Journal of the California Alliance for the Mentally Ill (Spring 1994), 5:1:42-44 (see also similar articles there by Hassner, Shamoo, Becker, Caplan, and the Journal's "Postscript"); Shamoo and Irving, "Accountability in research with persons with mental illness", Accountability in Research (Nov. 1993), 3:1:1-17; Shamoo and Irving, "The PSDA and the depressed elderly: Intermittent competency revisited", Journal of Clinical Ethics (Feb. 1993), 4:1:74-80; R. A. Destro, "Quality-of-life ethics and constitutional jurisprudence: The demise of natural rights and equal protection for the disabled and incompetent", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy (Spring 1996), pp, 1-11.
  
  For a more historical background, see: B. Muller-Hill, Murderous Science (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); R. Proctor, Racial Hygiene-Medicine Under the Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988); J. Lifton, The Nazi Doctors (New York: Plenum Press, 1986); B. Barber, Research On Human Subjects (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1993); H. Jonas, The Imperative of Responsibility (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1984); Jay Katz, Experimentation With Human Beings (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1972); A.C. Ivy, "The history and ethics of the use of human subjects in medical experiments", Science (1948), 108:1-5.
• 81. M.M. Uhlmann, "The legal logic of euthanasia", First Things (June/July 1996), pp. 39-43.
• 82. Similar to my concern with the use of the terms "pre-embryo" and "person" used in these bioethics "personhood" debates, see the exquisite work demonstrating historically the abuses perpetrated on "vulnerable" human populations by means of redefining them in some way as "sub-human" beings, by William Brennan, Dehumanizing the Vulnerable: When Word Games Take Lives (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1995).

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