S.1 There are scientific aspects of cloning and stem cell research which need to be clarified before ethical questions are posed. In particular, it seems that research on adult stem cells is comparably advanced to and perhaps more promising than research on embryonic stem cells. Further, the results of attempting to clone non-human animals cast serious doubt on the safety of cloning for transplantation, as well as cloning for birth (see sections 1.1.1-2.4.1).
S.2 Human beings are animals (of a special sort) who begin to exist when the individual organism begins to exist. The universal terminus a quo in developmental biology is fertilisation. The development of the placenta and other foetal organs does not undermine the significance of fertilization as the normal beginning of the human organism, and neither does the phenomenon of identical twinning, if this is correctly understood (see sections 3.1.1-3.2c.6).
S.3 The basis of the concept of human rights is that there is a minimum respect which is due to all human beings simply in virtue of their being human. This represents the rejection of the possibility of a natural human underclass (consisting of slaves, the disabled, women, children, or those of “lesser” races). The humanity of embryonic human beings entitles them also to a minimum human respect, despite the evident differences between human embryos and older human beings (see sections 3.3a.1-3.3b.7).
S.4 The human rights of the embryo include the right not to be attacked, used or commercialized, and the right to a certain care from the genetic parents. It is irresponsible to allow one's genetic material to be used to create an embryo who has no chance of implantation. IVF for research and cloning for research are wrong for similar reasons, whereas cloning for birth is wrong for other reasons (see sections 4.1.1-4.6.7).
S.5 The Helsinki Declaration on Medical Research Involving Human Subjects condemns research which is without the consent of the subject, harmful to the subject or which subordinates the interests of the subject to the interests of science and society. In cases of genuine doubt concerning the humanity of the subject one should err on the side of caution. A significant body of scholarly opinion to the effect that embryos are human beings constitutes a reasonable doubt concerning their supposed subhuman status. Human embryos should therefore be protected by law (5.1.1-7).
S.6 Human cloning for research and a major expansion of research on IVF embryos are being permitted in the face of international condemnation when it is far from evident that there is an urgent necessity to justify such dramatic moves. Such practices are likely to lead to cloning for birth, to further erosion of public confidence in the ethics of scientific research, and to an invidious promotion of treatments which many patients will regard as unconscionable. Cloning should be prevented before the regulations come into effect (5.2.1-5.4.1).
Next Page: Introduction
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8